Slavey
North: Sahtúgot’įné Yatı̨́,K’ashógot’įne Goxedǝ́,Shíhgot’įne Yatı̨́ South: Dené Dháh,Dene Yatıé,Dene Zhatıé
North Slavey text carved into stone in Yellowknife
Native to	Denendeh,Canada
Region	Northwest Territories
Ethnicity	Slavey,Sahtu
Native speakers	2,215 (2021 census)[1]
Language family	Dené–Yeniseian? Na-Dené Athabaskan Northern Athabaskan Slavey
Official status
Official language in	Northwest Territories,Canada[2]
Language codes
ISO 639-2	den
ISO 639-3	den – inclusive code Individual codes: scs – North Slavey xsl – South Slavey
Glottolog	slav1253
North Slavey is classified as Definitely Endangered by theUNESCOAtlas of the World's Languages in Danger.
This article containsIPA phonetic symbols. Without properrendering support, you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbols instead ofUnicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA.

Slavey (/ˈsleɪvi/SLAY-vee;^[5] alsoSlave,Slavé) is a group ofAthabaskan languages and adialect continuum spoken amongst theDene peoples ofCanada in theNorthwest Territories – or central Denendeh – where it also has official status.^[6] The languages are primarily written using a modifiedLatin script, with some usingCanadian Aboriginal syllabics. In their own languages, these languages are referred to as:Sahtúgot’įné Yatı̨́ (spoken by theSahtu Dene),K’ashógot’įne Goxedǝ́ (the Hare Dene dialect) andShíhgot’įne Yatı̨́ (the Mountain dialect) in the North, andDené Dháh (primarily by theDene Tha' inAlberta),Dene Yatıé orDene Zhatıé in the South.

Colville Lake

Délįne

Fort Good Hope

Norman Wells

Tulita

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Sahtu (North Slavey) communities in the Northwest Territories

North Slavey is spoken by theSahtu (North Slavey) people in theMackenzie District along the middleMackenzie River fromTulita (Fort Norman) north, aroundGreat Bear Lake, and in theMackenzie Mountains of theCanadian territory ofNorthwest Territories. The dialect has around 800 speakers.^[7]

Northern Slavey is an amalgamation of three separatedialects:

• K’ashógot’įne (ᑲᑊᗱᑯᑎᑊᓀ) Goxedǝ́: Hare, spoken by theGahwié got’iné - "Rabbitskin People" orK’áshogot’ıne - "Great Hare People", referring to their dependence on the varying hare for food and clothing, also calledPeaux de Lièvre orLocheaux
• Sahtúgot’įné (ᓴᑋᕲᒼᑯᑎᑊᓀ) Yatı̨́: Bear Lake, spoken by theSahtu Dene orSahtú got’iné - "Bear Lake People", also known asGens du Lac d'Ours
• Shíhgot’įne (ᗰᑋᑯᑎᑊᓀ) Yatı̨́: Mountain, spoken by theShıhgot’ıné, Shuhtaot'iné orShotah Dene - "Mountain People" orMountain Indians, also calledNahagot’iné, Nahaa orNahane Dene - "People of the west", so called because they lived in the mountains west of the other Slavey groups, between the Mackenzie Mountains and the Mackenzie River, from the Redstone River to the Mountain River

South Slavey (ᑌᓀ ᒐDené Dháh, Dene Yatıé orDene Zhatıé) is spoken by theSlavey people, who were also known asDehghaot'ine, Deh Cho, Etchareottine^[9] ("people dwelling in the shelter"), in the region ofGreat Slave Lake, upper Mackenzie River (Deh Cho - "Big River") and its drainage, in the District of Mackenzie, northwestAlberta, and northeastBritish Columbia.

Some communities are bilingual, with the children learning Slavey at home and English when they enter school. Still other communities are monolingual in Slavey^[10] The dialect has around 1,000 speakers.^[7]

Alternative names: Slavi, Slave, Dené, Mackenzian

The division of Slavey dialects is based largely on the way each one pronounces the old Proto-Athapaskan sounds *dz *ts *ts’ *s and *z.

North and South Slavey are recognized as official languages of the Northwest Territories; they may be used in court and in debates and proceedings of the Northwest Territories legislature. However, unlike English and French, the government only publishes laws and documents in North and South Slavey if the legislature requests it, and these documents are not authoritative.^[11]

In 2015, a Slavey woman named Andrea Heron challenged the territorial government over its refusal to permit theʔ character, representing the Slavey glottal stop, in her daughter's name, Sakaeʔah, despite Slavey languages being official in the NWT. The territory argued that territorial and federal identity documents were unable to accommodate the character. Heron had registered the name with a hyphen instead of the ʔ when her daughter was born, but when Sakaeʔah was 6, Ms. Heron joined a challenge by aChipewyan woman named Shene Catholique-Valpy regarding the same character in her own daughter's name, Sahaiʔa.^[12]

Also in 2015, theUniversity of Victoria launched a language revitalization program in the NWT, pairing learners of indigenous languages including Slavey with fluent speakers. The program requires 100 hours of conversation with the mentor with no English allowed, as well as sessions with instructors inFort Providence.^[13]

The consonant inventories in the dialects of Slavey differ considerably. The table above lists the 30 consonants common to most or all varieties. Hare lacks aspirated affricates (on red background), which have lenited into fricatives, whereas Mountain lacks/w/ (on blue). In addition, for some speakers of Hare, analveolar flap/ɾ/ has developed into a separate phoneme. Prenasalized stops/ᵐb,ⁿd/ may appear in Slavey proper.

The most pronounced difference is however the realization of a series of consonants that vary greatly in their place of articulation:^[14]

In Slavey proper, these aredental affricates and fricatives; comparative Athabaskan work reveals this to be the oldest sound value. Mountain has labials, with the voiceless stop coinciding with pre-existing/p/. Bearlake haslabialized velars, but has lenited the voiced fricative to coincide with pre-existing/w/. The most complicated situation is found in Hare, where the plain stop is a labialized velar, the ejective member is replaced by a/ʔw/ sequence, the aspirated affricate has turned into a fricative/f/, and both the voiceless and voiced fricatives have been lenited to/w/.

The following phonological and phonetic statements apply to all four dialects of Slavey.

• Unaspirated obstruents are either voiceless or weakly voiced, e.g.
  • /k/ →[k] or[k̬]
• Aspirated obstruents are strongly aspirated.
• Ejectives are strongly ejective.
• When occurring between vowels, ejectives are often voiced, e.g.
  • /kʼ/ →[ɡˀ] or[kʼ]
• /t͡sʰ/ is usually strongly velarized, i.e.[tˣ].
• Velar obstruents are palatalized before front vowels, e.g.
  • /kɛ/ →[cɛ]
  • /xɛ/ →[çɛ]
  • /ɣɛ/ →[ʝɛ]
• Velar fricatives may be labialized before round vowels.
  • The voiceless fricative is usually labialized, e.g.
    • /xo/ →[xʷo]
  • The voiced fricative is optionally labialized and may additionally be deaffricated e.g.
    • /ɣo/ →[ɣo] or[ɣʷo] or[wo]
• Velar stops are also labialized before round vowels. These labialized velars are not as heavily rounded as labial velars (which occur in Bearlake and Hare), e.g.
  • /ko/ →[kʷo]
  • /kʷo/ →[k̹ʷwo]
• Lateral affricates are generally alveolar, but sometimes velar, i.e.
  • /tɬ/ →[tɬ] or[kɬ]
  • /tɬʰ/ →[tɬʰ] or[kɬʰ]
  • /tɬʼ/ →[tɬʼ] or[kɬʼ]
• /x/ may be velar or glottal, i.e.
  • /x/ →[x] or[h]

• a[a]
• e[ɛ] or[æ] when followed by a back vowel
• ə[e] or[ie]
• i[i] or[ɪ] in syllable onset
• o[o]
• u[u]
• nasal vowels are marked with an ogonek accent, e.g.⟨ą⟩[ã]
• Vowel length is distributed as /VV/ in the dialects of Bearlake, Slavey and Mountain.
• South Slavey does not have the⟨ə⟩ vowel.

Slavey has two tones:

• high
• low

In Slavey orthography, high tone is marked with an acute accent, and low tone is unmarked.

Tones are both lexical and grammatical.

Lexical:/ɡáh/ 'along' vs./ɡàh/ 'rabbit'

Slavey morphemes have underlying syllable structures in the stems: CV, CVC, CVnC, V, and VC. The prefixes of the stem occur as Cv, CVC, VC, CV, and C.

^[10]

^[10]

Slavey alphabet (1973)^[15]

Tone is indicated with an acute accent and theogonek indicates nasalization.

North Slavey alphabet

South Slavey alphabet

Slavey, like many Athabascan languages, has a very specific morpheme order in the verb in which the stem must come last. The morpheme order is shown in the following chart.

^[10]

A Slavey verb must minimally have positions 13 and 14 to be proper. Here are some examples:^[10]

Slavey marks gender by means of prefixation on the verb theme. There are three different genders, one of which is unmarked; the other two are marked by prefixes[go-] and[de-]. However, only certain verb themes allow gender prefixes.^[10]

[go-] is used for nouns which mark location in either time or space. Some examples of these areal nouns are house (kǫ́é), land (déh), river (deh), and winter (xay).^[10] The gender pronoun can be a direct object, an oblique object or a possessor.^[10]

[de-] marks wood, leaves and branches. This gender is optional: some speakers use it and others do not.[10]

Slavey marks number in the subject prefixes in position 12. The dual is marked by the prefix łéh- (Sl)/łe- (Bl)/le- (Hr).

ni̒łe̒gehtthe

'They two got stuck in a narrow passage.'

The plural is marked with the prefixgo-.

Dahgogehthe

'They dance.'

ʔeha̒goni̒dhe

'We go for meat.'

Slavey has first, second, third, and fourth person. When in position 12, acting as a subject, first-person singular is /h-/, second-person singular is /ne-/, first-person dual/plural is /i̒d-/, and second person plural is marked by /ah-/. Third person is not marked in this position. When occurring as a direct or indirect object, the pronoun prefixes change and fourth person becomes relevant.

• First-person singular takes se-.
• Second-person singular takes ne-
• Third person is marked by be-/me-
• Fourth person is marked by ye-^[10]

Like most Athabaskan languages, Slavey has a multitude of classifications. There are five basic categories that describe the nature of an object. Some of these categories are broken up further.^[10]

Slavey has only one structural tense: future. Other tenses can be indicated periphrastically.^[10]

An immediate future can be formed by thede- inceptive (position 9) plusy-.

Slavey has two semantic aspects: perfective and imperfective.

The perfective is represented in position 11:

The perfective can also be used with a past tense marker to indicate that at the point of reference, which is sometime in the past, the event was completed[10]

The imperfective indicates that the reference time precedes the end of the event time:

Slavey is a verb-final language. The basic word order is SOV.^[10]

Oblique objects precede the direct object.[10]

Slavey has no case markings. To differentiate between subject, direct object, and oblique objects, word order is used. The subject will be the first noun phrase, and the direct object will occur right before the verb. The oblique objects are controlled by postpositions.^[10]

^[10]

Possessive pronoun prefixes are found in Slavey. These pronouns have the same forms as the direct and oblique object pronouns. The prefixes are listed below with examples.

bá 'mitts'

sebáré 'my mitts'

mbeh 'knife'

sembehé 'my knife'

ts'ah 'hat'

net'saré 'your (SG) hat'

tl'uh 'rope'

netl'ulé 'your (SG) rope'

ʔelįé 'someone's dog'

ts'éré 'blanket'

naxets'éré 'our blanket, your (PL) blanket'

There are both coordinating and subordinating conjunctions in Slavey.

[10]

There are three important parts to a relative clause. There is the head, which is the noun that is modified or delimited. The second part is the restricting sentence. The sentence modifies the head noun. The last part is the complementizer.^[10]

Slavey was the native language spoken by the fictional band in the Canadian television seriesNorth of 60.Nick Sibbeston, a formerPremier of the Northwest Territories, was a Slavey language and culture consultant for the show.

• Broken Slavey

• Howard, Philip G. 1990.A Dictionary of the Verbs of South Slavey. Yellowknife: Dept. of Culture and Communications, Govt. of the Northwest Territories,ISBN 0-7708-3868-5
• Isaiah, Stanley, et al. 1974.Golqah Gondie = Animal Stories - in Slavey. Yellowknife: Programme Development Division, Government of the Northwest Territories, .
• Mithun, Marianne. 1999.The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk);ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
• Monus, Vic, and Isaiah, Stanley. 1977.Slavey Topical Dictionary: A Topical List of Words and Phrases Reflecting the Dialect of the Slavey Language Spoken in the Fort Simpson Area. [Yellowknife: Government of the Northwest Territories, Canada?].
• Northwest Territories. 1993.South Slavey Legal Terminology. [Yellowknife, N.W.T.]: Dept. of Justice, Govt. of the Northwest Territories.
• Northwest Territories. 1981.Alphabet Posters in the Wrigley Dialect of the Slavey Language. [Yellowknife?]: Dept. of Education, Programs and Evaluation Branch.
• Tatti, Fibbie, and Howard, Philip G.. 1978.A Slavey Language Pre-Primer in the Speech of Fort Franklin. [Yellowknife]: Linguistic Programmes Division, Dept. of Education, Northwest Territories.
• Anand, Pranav and Nevins, Andrew.Shifty Operators in Changing Contexts. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.https://web.archive.org/web/20050517022822/http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~lingdept/IndexicalityWorkshop/anandnevins04.pdf
• Rice, Keren. 1989.A Grammar of Slave. Mouton Grammar Library (No. 5). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.ISBN 3-11-010779-1.
• Sabourin, Margaret. 1975.Readers: Slavey Language. Yellowknife: Dept. of Education, Programme Development Division.

Slavey language test ofWiktionary atWikimedia Incubator

• Northern Athabaskan languages
• First Nations languages in Canada
• First Nations in the Northwest Territories
• Indigenous languages of the North American Subarctic

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