Slavery and related practices of forced labor varied greatly between regions and over time. In some instances, traditional practices may have continued after European colonisation.
Slaves were traded across trans-continental trade networks in North America before European arrival.[1]
Many of theIndigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, such as theHaida andTlingit, were traditionally known as fierce warriors and slave-traders, raiding as far south asCalifornia.[2][3][4] Slavery was hereditary, the slaves beingprisoners of war. Their targets often included members of theCoast Salish groups. Among some tribes about a quarter of the population were slaves.[5][6] Oneslave narrative was composed by an Englishman,John R. Jewitt, who had been taken alive when his ship was captured in 1802; his memoir provides a detailed look at life as a slave, and explains that among his slavemasters, the main tribal chief had 50 slaves and his deputies up to a dozen each.[7]
In this illustration from theRamírez Codex, the three men in the background represent slaves who were sacrificed as part of the funeral rites for theAztec EmperorAuitzotl.
InMesoamerica, the most common forms of slavery were those ofprisoners of war anddebtors. People unable to pay back debts could be sentenced to work as slaves to the persons owed until the debts were worked off. Enslavement was also a possible sentence for the crimes of thievery, rape and poaching.[11]
TheMayan[12][13] andAztec[14] civilizations both practiced slavery. Warfare was important toMaya society, because raids on surrounding areas provided the victims required for humansacrifice, as well as slaves for the construction of temples.[15] Among the Maya, slavery was inherited, unless a ransom was paid.[16] Most victims ofhuman sacrifice were prisoners of war or slaves.[17] Among the Aztecs,white collar crime such as embezzlement,breach of trust, and theft could be penalized with enslavement.[18] TheNahuas traded child slaves.[19]
TheKalinago of Dominica were known to keep slaves.[20]
In theInca Empire, workers were subject to aMit'a in lieu of taxes which they paid by working for the government, a form ofcorvée labor.[21] Eachayllu, or extended family, would decide which family member to send to do the work. It is debated whether this system of forced labor counts as slavery.[citation needed]
TheArawak,Caribs,Waraos, andAkawaio of theDutch Guiana captured people from other tribes. Most males were executed, but some were enslaved or sold repeatedly, often across great distances.[22]
^Ames, Kenneth M.; Maschner, Herbert D. G. (1999).Peoples of the northwest coast: their archaeology and prehistory. London: Thames & Hudson, p. 196.
^Green, Jonathan S. (1915).Journal of a tour on the north west coast of America in the year 1829, containing a description of a part of Oregon, California and the north west coast and the numbers, manners and customs of the native tribes. New York city: Reprinted for C. F. Heartman, p. 45.
^Ames, Kenneth M. (2001). "Slaves, Chiefs and Labour on the Northern Northwest Coast".World Archaeology 33 (1): 1–17., p. 3.
^BROWN, ROBERT, ed. (1896). "VIII. MUSIC—MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS—SLAVES [...]".THE ADVENTURES OF JOHN JEWITT. London: CLEMENT WILSON. Retrieved27 May 2023.Maquina had nearly fifty, male and female, in his house, a number constituting about one half of its inhabitants, comprehending those obtained by war and purchase; whereas none of the other chiefs had more than twelve
^Helle, Richard."Slavery".Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved16 August 2021.
^Burkholder, Mark A.; Johnson, Lyman L. (2019).Colonial Latin America (10th ed.).Oxford University Press. p. 137.thieves, rapists, and poachers, among others, could be sentenced to enslavement for crimes.
^Burkholder, Mark A.; Johnson, Lyman L. (2019). "1. America, Iberia, and Africa Before the Conquest".Colonial Latin America (10th ed.).Oxford University Press. p. 10.the Maya […] once enslaved, the status could become hereditary unless the slave were ransomed
^"Aztec".Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved16 August 2021.
^Velázquez Hernández, Martha Alicia (2020)."Historia del derecho prehispánico. El derecho en el pueblo azteca"(PDF).Revista ExLege.5. Universidad de La Salle Bajío: 163. Retrieved7 February 2024.Con la esclavitud se castigaban el abuso de confianza, la malversación de fondos, el robo, dependiento de la gravedad.
^Marjoleine Kars (2020). "2 - Amerindians on the Wild Coast".Blood on the River. New York: The New Press. p. 37.dominated by Arawaks […] Caribs […] Waraos […] Akawaio […] Native men added regularly to the population of their villages by capturing people […] Women were forced to marry into the village to perform domestic and sexual duties […] Male prisoners of war were more likely to be killed […] Some captives became servants or slaves or they found themselves repeatedly traded, often across great distances
^Helle, Richard."Slavery".Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved16 August 2021.
Canseco, María Rostworowski de Díez (1999).History of the Inca realm. Cambridge New York Melbourne: Cambridge Univ. Pr. p. 63.ISBN978-0521637596.
Foias, Antonia E. (2014).Ancient Maya Political Dynamics. Gainesville, Florida: University of Florida Press.ISBN978-0813060897.
Ginzburg, Carlo (2012). "Chapter 3:Montaigne, Cannibals, and Grottoes".Threads and Traces: True False Fictive. University of California Press.ISBN978-0520274488.
Hernández, Miriam (2012).Aztec women and goddesses (1st English ed.). México City: FCAS- Fundación Cultural Armella Spitalier.ISBN978-6078187164.OCLC794489192.
Palmié, Stephan, ed. (1995).Slave Cultures and the Cultures of Slavery (2nd. printing [1997], 1st. ed.). Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press. p. 283.
