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In livestockagriculture and themeat industry, aslaughterhouse, also called anabattoir (/ˈæbətwɑːr/ ⓘ), is a facility wherelivestock animals areslaughtered to provide food. Slaughterhouses supply meat, which then becomes the responsibility of ameat-packing facility.
Slaughterhouses that produce meat that is not intended for human consumption are sometimes referred to asknacker's yards orknackeries. This is where animals are slaughtered that are not fit for human consumption or that can no longer work on a farm, such as retiredwork horses.
Slaughtering animals on a large scale poses significant issues in terms of logistics,animal welfare, and the environment, and the process must meetpublic health requirements. Due to public aversion in different cultures, determining where to build slaughterhouses is also a matter of some consideration.
Frequently,animal rights groups raise concerns about the methods of transport to and from slaughterhouses, preparation prior to slaughter, animal herding, stunning methods, and the killing itself.[1]
Until modern times, the slaughter of animals generally took place in a haphazard and unregulated manner in diverse places. Early maps of London show numerousstockyards in the periphery of the city, where slaughter occurred in the open air or under cover such aswet markets. A term for such open-air slaughterhouses wasshambles, and there are streets named "The Shambles" in some English and Irish towns (e.g.,Worcester,York,Bandon) which got their name from having been the site on which butchers killed and prepared animals for consumption.Fishamble Street, Dublin, was formerly afish-shambles. Sheffield had 183 slaughterhouses in 1910, and it was estimated that there were 20,000 in England and Wales.[2]
The slaughterhouse emerged as a coherent institution in the 19th century.[3] A combination of health and social concerns, exacerbated by the rapidurbanisation experienced during theIndustrial Revolution, ledsocial reformers to call for the isolation, sequester and regulation of animal slaughter. As well as the concerns raised regarding hygiene and disease, there were also criticisms of the practice on the grounds that the effect that killing had, both on the butchers and the observers, "educate[d] the men in the practice of violence and cruelty, so that they seem to have no restraint on the use of it."[4] An additional motivation for eliminating private slaughter was to impose a careful system of regulation for the "morally dangerous" task of putting animals to death.[5]
As a result of this tension, meat markets within the city were closed and abattoirs built outside city limits. An early framework for the establishment of public slaughterhouses was put in place in Paris in 1810, under the reign of theEmperor Napoleon. Five areas were set aside on the outskirts of the city and the feudal privileges of theguilds were curtailed.[6]
As the meat requirements of the growing number of residents in London steadily expanded,the meat markets both within the city and beyond attracted increasing levels of public disapproval. Meat had been traded atSmithfield Market as early as the 10th century. By 1726, it was regarded as "without question, the greatest in the world", byDaniel Defoe.[7] By the middle of the 19th century, in the course of a single year 220,000 head of cattle and 1,500,000 sheep would be "violently forced into an area of five acres, in the very heart of London, through its narrowest and most crowded thoroughfares".[8]
By the early 19th century, pamphlets were being circulated arguing in favor of the removal of the livestock market and its relocation outside of the city due to the extremely low hygienic conditions[9] as well as the brutal treatment of the cattle.[10] In 1843, theFarmer's Magazine published a petition signed by bankers, salesmen, aldermen, butchers and local residents against the expansion of the livestock market.[8] TheTown Police Clauses Act 1847 created a licensing and registration system, though few slaughter houses were closed.[11]
AnAct of Parliament was eventually passed in 1852. Under its provisions, a new cattle-market was constructed in Copenhagen Fields,Islington. The newMetropolitan Cattle Market was also opened in 1855, and West Smithfield was left as waste ground for about a decade, until the construction of the new market began in the 1860s under the authority of the 1860 Metropolitan Meat and Poultry Market Act.[12] The market was designed byarchitect SirHorace Jones and was completed in 1868.
Acut and cover railway tunnel was constructed beneath the market to create a triangular junction with the railway betweenBlackfriars andKing's Cross.[13] This allowed animals to be transported into the slaughterhouse by train and the subsequent transfer of animal carcasses to the Cold Store building, or direct to the meat market via lifts.
At the same time, the first large and centralized slaughterhouse in Paris was constructed in 1867 under the orders ofNapoleon III at theParc de la Villette and heavily influenced the subsequent development of the institution throughout Europe.
These slaughterhouses were regulated by law to ensure good standards of hygiene, the prevention of the spread of disease and the minimization of needless animal cruelty. The slaughterhouse had to be equipped with a specialized water supply system to effectively clean the operating area of blood and offal. Veterinary scientists, notablyGeorge Fleming and John Gamgee, campaigned for stringent levels of inspection to ensure thatepizootics such asrinderpest (a devastating outbreak of the disease covered all of Britain in 1865) would not be able to spread. By 1874, three meat inspectors were appointed for the London area, and thePublic Health Act 1875 required local authorities to provide central slaughterhouses (they were only given powers to close unsanitary slaughterhouses in 1890).[14] Yet the appointment of slaughterhouse inspectors and the establishment of centralised abattoirs took place much earlier in the British colonies, such as the colonies of New South Wales and Victoria, and in Scotland where 80% of cattle were slaughtered in public abattoirs by 1930.[15] In Victoria theMelbourne Abattoirs Act 1850 (NSW) "confined the slaughtering of animals to prescribed public abattoirs, while at the same time prohibiting the killing of sheep, lamb, pigs or goats at any other place within the city limits".[16] Animals were shipped alive to British ports from Ireland, from Europe and from the colonies and slaughtered in large abattoirs at the ports. Conditions were often very poor.[17]
Attempts were also made throughout the British Empire to reform the practice of slaughter itself, as the methods used came under increasing criticism for causing undue pain to the animals. The eminent physician,Benjamin Ward Richardson, spent many years in developing more humane methods of slaughter. He brought into use no fewer than fourteen possible anesthetics for use in the slaughterhouse and even experimented with the use of electric current at theRoyal Polytechnic Institution.[18] As early as 1853, he designed a lethal chamber that would gas animals to death relatively painlessly,[19] and he founded the Model Abattoir Society in 1882 to investigate and campaign for humane methods of slaughter.
The invention ofrefrigeration and the expansion of transportation networks by sea and rail allowed for the safe exportation of meat around the world. Additionally, meat-packing millionairePhilip Danforth Armour's invention of the "disassembly line" greatly increased the productivity and profit margin of themeat packing industry: "according to some, animal slaughtering became the firstmass-production industry in the United States." This expansion has been accompanied by increased concern about the physical and mental conditions of the workers along with controversy over the ethical and environmental implications of slaughtering animals for meat.[3]
The Edinburgh abattoir, which was built in 1910, had well lit laboratories, hot and cold water, gas, microscopes and equipment for cultivating organisms. The English 1924 Public Health (Meat) Regulations required notification of slaughter to enable inspection of carcasses and enabled inspected carcasses to be marked.[20]
The development of slaughterhouses was linked with industrial expansion of by-products. By 1932 the British by-product industry was worth about £97 million a year, employing 310,000 people. The Aberdeen slaughterhouse sent hooves to Lancashire to make glue, intestines to Glasgow for sausages and hides to the Midland tanneries.In January 1940 the British government took over the 16,000 slaughterhouses and by 1942 there were only 779.[21]
In the latter part of the 20th century, the layout and design of most U.S. slaughterhouses was influenced by the work ofTemple Grandin.[22][non-primary source needed] She suggested that reducing the stress of animals being led to slaughter may help slaughterhouse operators improve efficiency and profit.[23] In particular she applied an understanding ofanimal psychology to designpens andcorrals which funnel a herd of animals arriving at a slaughterhouse into a single file ready for slaughter. Her corrals employ long sweeping curves[24][25][26] so that each animal is prevented from seeing what lies ahead and just concentrates on the hind quarters of the animal in front of it. This design – along with the design elements of solid sides, solid crowd gate, and reduced noise at the end point – work together to encourage animals forward in the chute and to not reverse direction.[27][non-primary source needed]
Beginning in 2008 the Local Infrastructure for Local Agriculture, a non-profit committed to revitalizing opportunities for "small farmers and strengthening the connection between local supply and demand",[28] constructed a mobile slaughterhouse facility in efforts for small farmers to process meat quickly and cost effectively. Named the Modular Harvest System, or M.H.S., it receivedUSDA approval in 2010. The M.H.S. consists of three separate trailers: One for slaughtering, one for consumable body parts, and one for other body parts. Preparation of individual cuts is done at a butchery or other meat preparation facility.[28]
The standards and regulations governing slaughterhouses vary considerably around the world. In many countries the slaughter of animals is regulated by custom and tradition rather than by law. In the non-Western world, including theArab world, theIndian sub-continent, etc., both forms of meat are available: one which is produced in modernmechanized slaughterhouses, and the other from localbutcher shops.[citation needed]
In some communities animal slaughter and permitted species may be controlled byreligious laws, most notablyhalal forMuslims andkashrut forJewish communities. This can cause conflicts with national regulations when a slaughterhouse adhering to the rules of religious preparation is located in someWestern countries. In Jewish law, captive bolts and other methods of pre-slaughter paralysis are generally not permissible, due to it being forbidden for an animal to be stunned prior to slaughter. Various halal food authorities have more recently permitted the use of a recently developed fail-safe system of head-onlystunning where the shock is non-fatal, and where it is possible to reverse the procedure and revive the animal after the shock. The use ofelectronarcosis and other methods of dulling the sensing has been approved by the Egyptian Fatwa Committee. This allows these entities to continue their religious techniques while keeping accordance to the national regulations.[29]
In some societies, traditional cultural and religious aversion to slaughter led to prejudice against the people involved. InJapan, where the ban on slaughter of livestock for food[specify] was lifted in the late 19th century, the newly found slaughter industry drew workers primarily from villages ofburakumin, who traditionally worked in occupations relating to death (such as executioners and undertakers). In some parts ofwestern Japan, prejudice faced by current and former residents of such areas (burakumin "hamlet people") is still a sensitive issue. Because of this, even the Japanese word for "slaughter" (屠殺tosatsu) is deemedpolitically incorrect by somepressure groups as its inclusion of thekanji for "kill" (殺) supposedly portrays those who practise it in a negative manner.
Some countries have laws that exclude specific animal species or grades of animal from being slaughtered for human consumption, especially those that aretaboo food. The formerIndian Prime MinisterAtal Bihari Vajpayee suggested in 2004 introducing legislation banning the slaughter of cows throughoutIndia, asHinduism holdscows as sacred and considers their slaughter unthinkable and offensive. This was often opposed on grounds of religious freedom. The slaughter of cows and the importation of beef into the nation ofNepal are strictly forbidden.
Refrigeration technology allowed meat from the slaughterhouse to be preserved for longer periods. This led to the concept of the slaughterhouse as a freezing works. Prior to this, canning was an option.[30] Freezing works are common in New Zealand, Australia and South Africa. In countries where meat is exported for a substantial profit the freezing works were built near docks, or near transport infrastructure.[31]
Mobile poultry processing units (MPPUs) follow the same principles, but typically require only one trailer and, in much of the United States, may legally operate under USDA exemptions not available to red meat processors.[32] Several MPPUs have been in operation since before 2010, under various models of operation and ownership.[33]
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Most countries have laws in regard to the treatment of animals in slaughterhouses. In theUnited States, there is theHumane Slaughter Act of 1958, a law requiring that all swine, sheep, cattle, and horses be stunned unconscious with application of a stunning device by a trained person before being hoisted up on the line. There is some debate over the enforcement of this act. This act, like those in many countries, exempts slaughter in accordance to religious law, such askoshershechita[34] anddhabiha halal.[35] Most strict interpretations of kashrut require that the animal be fully sensible when itscarotid artery is cut.[citation needed]
The novelThe Jungle presented a fictionalized account of unsanitary conditions in slaughterhouses and the meatpacking industry during the 1800s. This led directly to an investigation commissioned directly by PresidentTheodore Roosevelt, and to the passage of theMeat Inspection Act and thePure Food and Drug Act of 1906, which established theFood and Drug Administration. A much larger body of regulation deals with the public health and worker safety regulation and inspection.
In 1997, Gail Eisnitz, chief investigator for the Humane Farming Association (HFA),[36] released the bookSlaughterhouse. It includes interviews of slaughterhouse workers in the U.S. who say that, because of the speed with which they are required to work, animals are routinely skinned while apparently alive and still blinking, kicking and shrieking. Eisnitz argues that this is not only cruel to the animals but also dangerous for the human workers, as cows weighing several thousands of pounds thrashing around in pain are likely to kick out and debilitate anyone working near them.[37]
This would imply that certain slaughterhouses throughout the country are not following the guidelines and regulations spelled out by theHumane Slaughter Act, requiring all animals to be put down by some form, typicallyelectronarcosis, and thus insusceptible to pain before being subjected to any form of violent action.
According to the HFA, Eiznitz interviewed slaughterhouse workers representing over two million hours of experience, who, without exception, told her that they have beaten, strangled, boiled and dismembered animals alive or have failed to report those who do. The workers described the effects the violence has had on their personal lives, with several admitting to being physically abusive or taking to alcohol and other drugs.[38]
The HFA alleges that workers are required to kill up to 1,100 hogs an hour and end up taking their frustration out on the animals.[38] Eisnitz interviewed one worker, who had worked in ten slaughterhouses, about pig production. He told her:
Hogs get stressed out pretty easy. If you prod them too much, they have heart attacks. If you get a hog in the chute that's had the shit prodded out of him and has a heart attack or refuses to move, you take ameat hook and hook it into hisbunghole. You try to do this by clipping thehipbone. Then you drag him backwards. You're dragging these hogs alive, and a lot of times the meat hook rips out of the bunghole. I've seen hams – thighs – completely ripped open. I've also seen intestines come out. If the hog collapses near the front of the chute, you shove the meat hook into his cheek and drag him forward.[39]
Animal rights activists,anti-speciesists,vegetarians andvegans are prominent critics of slaughterhouses and have created events such as themarch to close all slaughterhouses to voice concerns about the conditions in slaughterhouses and ask for their abolition. Some have argued that humane animal slaughter is impossible.[40]
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American slaughterhouse workers are three times more likely to suffer serious injury than the average American worker.[41]NPR reports that pig and cattle slaughterhouse workers are nearly seven times more likely to sufferrepetitive strain injuries than average.[42]The Guardian reports that on average there are two amputations a week involving slaughterhouse workers in the United States.[43] On average, one employee ofTyson Foods, the largest meat producer in America, is injured and amputates a finger or limb per month.[44] The Bureau of Investigative Journalism reported that over a period of six years, in theUK 78 slaughter workers lost fingers, parts of fingers or limbs, more than 800 workers had serious injuries, and at least 4,500 had to take more than three days off after accidents.[45] In a 2018 study in the Italian Journal of Food Safety, slaughterhouse workers are instructed to wear ear protectors to protect their hearing from the loud noises in the facility.[46] A 2004 study in theJournal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine found that "excess risks were observed for mortality from all causes, all cancers, and lung cancer" in workers employed in the New Zealand meat processing industry.[47]
The worst thing, worse than the physical danger, is the emotional toll. If you work in the stick pit [where hogs are killed] for any period of time – that lets you kill things but doesn't let you care. You may look a hog in the eye that's walking around in the blood pit with you and think, "God, that really isn't a bad looking animal." You may want to pet it. Pigs down on the kill floor have come up to nuzzle me like a puppy. Two minutes later I had to kill them – beat them to death with a pipe. I can't care.
— Gail A. Eisnitz,[48]
Slaughterhouse workers have a higher prevalence rate of mental health distress, includinganxiety, detachment,depression,emotional numbing,perpetrator trauma,psychosocial distress, andPTSD, violence-supportive attitudes, and an increased crime levels. Slaughterhouse workers have adaptive and maladaptive strategies to cope with the workplace environment and associated stressors.[49][50][51][52][53][54]
Working at slaughterhouses often leads to a high amount of psychological trauma.[55][56] A 2016 study inOrganization indicates, "Regression analyses of data from 10,605 Danish workers across 44 occupations suggest that slaughterhouse workers consistently experience lower physical and psychological well-being along with increased incidences of negative coping behavior."[57] A 2009 study by criminologist Amy Fitzgerald indicates, "slaughterhouse employment increases total arrest rates, arrests for violent crimes, arrests for rape, and arrests for other sex offenses in comparison with other industries."[58] As authors from the PTSD Journal explain, "These employees are hired to kill animals, such as pigs and cows that are largely gentle creatures. Carrying out this action requires workers to disconnect from what they are doing and from the creature standing before them. This emotional dissonance can lead to consequences such as domestic violence, social withdrawal, anxiety, drug and alcohol abuse, and PTSD."[59]
Starting in the 1980s,Cargill,Conagra Brands, Tyson Foods and other large food companies moved most slaughterhouse operations to rural areas of theSouthern United States which were more hostile to unionization efforts.[60] Slaughterhouses in the United States commonly illegally employ and exploit underage workers and undocumented immigrants.[61][62] In 2010,Human Rights Watch described slaughterhouse line work in the United States as a human rights crime.[63] In a report byOxfam America, slaughterhouse workers were observed not being allowed breaks, were often required to wear diapers, and were paid below minimum wage.[64]
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Power, D'Arcy (1901). "Richardson, Benjamin Ward". InLee, Sidney (ed.).Dictionary of National Biography (1st supplement). London: Smith, Elder & Co.Round crowd pens and curved single file chutes work better than straight ones, but they must be laid out correctly. A curved chute works more efficiently than a straight one because it prevents cattle from seeing people and other activities at the end of the chute." "A round crowd pen will work better than a straight crowd pen because, as cattle go around a 180° turn, they think they are going back to where they came from
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