Askeuomorph (also spelledskiamorph,/ˈskjuːəˌmɔːrf,ˈskjuːoʊ-/)[1][2] is a derivative object that retains ornamentaldesign cues (attributes) from structures that were necessary in the original.[3] Skeuomorphs are typically used to make something new feel familiar and thus easier to understand and use. They employ elements that, while essential to the original object, serve no pragmatic purpose in the new system, except for identification. Examples includepottery embellished with imitationrivets reminiscent of similar pots made of metal[4] and a software calendar that imitates theappearance of binding on a paper desk calendar.[5]
The termskeuomorph is compounded from theGreekskeuos (σκεῦος), meaning "container or tool", andmorphḗ (μορφή), meaning "shape". It has been applied to material objects since 1890.[6] In graphical computer interfaces starting in the 1980s, skeuomorphs are a design convention for graphic elements.[7]
Skeuomorphs may be deliberately employed to make a new design more familiar and comfortable or may be the result of cultural influences and norms on the designer. They may be the artistic expression on the part of the designer.[7] The usability researcher and academicDon Norman describes skeuomorphism in terms of cultural constraints: interactions with a system that are learned only through culture. Norman also popularized perceivedaffordances, where the user can tell what an object provides or does based on its appearance, which skeuomorphism can enable.[8]
The concept of skeuomorphism overlaps with other design concepts.Mimesis is an imitation, coming directly from the Greek word.[9]Archetype is the original idea or model that is emulated, where the emulations can be skeuomorphic.[10] Skeuomorphism is parallel to, but different from,path dependence in technology, where an element's functional behavior is maintained even when the original reasons for its design no longer exist.
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Many features of wooden buildings were repeated in stone by theAncient Greeks when they transitioned from wood tomasonry construction. Decorative stone features in theDoric order ofclassical architecture inGreek temples such astriglyphs,mutules,guttae, andmodillions are supposed to be derived from true structural and functional features of the early wooden temples. The triglyph and guttae are seen as recreating, respectively, the carved beam-ends and six wooden pegs driven in to secure the beam in place.[11][12][13]
Historically, high-status items such as theMinoans' elaborate and expensive silver cups were recreated for a wider market usingpottery, a cheaper material. The exchange of shapes between metalwork and ceramics, often from the former to the latter, is near-constant in the history of thedecorative arts. Sometimes pellets of clay are used to evoke therivets of the metal originals.[14]
There is also evidence of skeuomorphism in material transitions. Leather and pottery often carry over features from the wooden counterparts of previous generations. Clay pottery has also been found bearing rope-shaped protrusions, pointing to craftsmen seeking familiar shapes and processes while working with new materials.[12] Another example is the small non-functional handles on glass maple syrup bottles, which evoke stoneware jug handles.[15] In this context, skeuomorphs exist as traits sought in other objects, either for their social desirability or psychological comforts.[7]
In the modern era, cheaper plastic items often mimic more expensive wooden and metal products,[16] though they are only skeuomorphic if new ornamentation references the original functionality,[17] such as molded screw heads in molded plastic items.[18] The lever on a mechanical slot machine, or "one-armed bandit", is skeuomorphic on a modern video slot machine, since mechanical force is no longer necessary. Articles of clothing are also given skeuomorphic treatment; for example, faux buckles on certain strap shoes such asMary Janes for small children, which retain the aesthetic but usevelcro fastening to make them easier to use.
Automotive design has historically been full of physical skeuomorphisms, such as the transformation from wooden framed and bodied early vehicles produced bycoachworks to those which incorporated both functional wood and steel (referred to as "woodies") to, ultimately, simulated vinyl woodgrain cladding entirely for style by the 1960s. Other examples include thinly faux chrome-plated plastic components and imitation leather, gold, interior wood, pearl, or crystal jeweled elements. InThe Design of Everyday Things,Don Norman notes that early automobiles were designed after horse-drawncarriages.[16] Indeed, the early automobile designHorsey Horseless even included a wooden horse head on the front to try to minimize scaring the real animals.[19] In the 1970s,opera windows andvinyl roofs on many luxury sedan cars similarly imitated carriage work from thehorse and buggy era. As of 2019[update], mostelectric cars feature prominent front grilles, even though there is little need for intake of air tocool an absentinternal combustion engine.[20]
Due to the relatively abstract nature of computing, manyoperating systems have a skeuomorphicgraphical user interface that emulates the aesthetics of physical objects to aid familiarity. A prominent example is thedesktop metaphor, which represents programs and filesystem objects as if they were objects on the user's desk. At the extreme, interfaces such asMicrosoft Bob extend the metaphor to the user's entire computing experience, representing different programs as objects in a home.[21]
Skeuomorphs are also used by individual computer programs, often representing the program's inferface as a physical object with a similar function. Examples include a digital contact list resembling aRolodex[22] and IBM's 1998RealThings package.[23] A more extreme example is found in some musicsynthesis andaudio processing software packages, which closely emulate physical musical instruments and audio equipment complete with buttons and dials.[24]Icons of GUIs may also depict skeuomorphic representations of physical objects, such as an image of a physical paper folder to represent computer files[16] in thedesktop metaphor or an image of abell for representingnotifications.
Virtual skeuomorphs can also be auditory. The shutter-click sound emitted by mostcamera phones when taking a picture is an auditory skeuomorph.[25] Other familiar examples are the paper-crumpling sound when a document is trashed[26] and sound engines in an electric car mimicking the sound of an internal combustion engine.[27]
Other virtual skeuomorphs do not employ literal images of some physical object; but rather allude toritual human heuristics or heuristic motifs, such as slider bars that emulatelinear potentiometers[24] andvisual tabs that behave like physical tabbed file folders. Another example is the swiping hand gesture for turning the "pages" or screens of a tablet display.[28][29] In some cases, skeuomorphs start out as direct representations of physical objects, but later become indirectly symbolic of the task they represent (such as a drawing of afloppy disk to represent "save", which persisted even after floppy disks were no longer widely used for data storage).
Some virtual skeuomorphs have become emblematic of certain companies or time periods.Apple Inc., while under the direction ofSteve Jobs, was known for its wide usage of skeuomorphic designs inMac OS X and various applications. This changed after Jobs's death whenScott Forstall, described as "the most vocal and high-ranking proponent of the visual design style favored by Mr. Jobs", resigned. Apple designerJonathan Ive took over some of Forstall's responsibilities and had "made his distaste for the visual ornamentation in Apple's mobile software known within the company".[30] With the announcement ofiOS 7 atWWDC in 2013, Apple officially shifted from skeuomorphism to amore simplified design, thus beginning the so-called "death of skeuomorphism" at Apple.[31] Skeuomorphism is also a key component ofFrutiger Aero, an Internet aesthetic derived from mid-2000s user interface designs, includingMicrosoft's skeuomorph design fromWindows XP toWindows 7.[32]
Retrofuturism incorporates visual motifs from old predictions of the future, especiallyvisions of electro-industrialism.[clarification needed][33][failed verification] Skeuomorphic design is frequently incorporated in retrowave orsynthwave illustrations. Skeuomorphic design is closely linked withmetamodernism.
Skeuomorphic design seems to be preferred by older recipient groups, often referred to as "digital immigrants", while "digital natives" tend to favorflat design over skeuomorphisms. However, younger people are still able to understand the signifiers that skeuomorphic design employs. A better user experience could be measured for each respective design philosophy among digital natives and immigrants.[34]
An argument in favor of skeuomorphic design in digital devices is that signifiers to affordances help those familiar with the original item learn to use the digital version. Interaction paradigms for computer devices are culturally entrenched; proposals for change often spawn debate.Don Norman describes this process as a form ofcultural heritage,[8] and credits skeuomorphism with easing transitions to newer technology, stating that it "gives comfort and makes learning easier" until the newer devices no longer need to resemble their predecessors.[16]
Compared to flat design, skeuomorphic design seems to facilitate a fast navigation through graphic user interfaces, because icons are more easily recognized and less abstract than their minimalistic counterparts found in flat design.[34]
The arguments against virtual skeuomorphic design are that skeuomorphic interface elements are harder to operate and take up more screen space than standard interface elements, that this breaksoperating system interface design standards, that it causes an inconsistentlook and feel between applications,[35] that skeuomorphic interface elements rarely incorporate numeric input or feedback for accurately setting a value, that many users may have no experience with the original device being emulated, that skeuomorphic design can increasecognitive load with visual noise that after a few uses gives little or no value to the user, that skeuomorphic design limits creativity by grounding the user experience to physical counterparts,[36] and that skeuomorphic designs often do not accurately represent underlying system state or data types due to inappropriatemimesis. For example, an analog gauge interface may be read less precisely than a digital one.
The issue is two-fold: first, that traditional visual metaphors no longer translate to modern users; and second, that excessive digital imitation of real-world objects creates confusion among users.
