Skandhas (Sanskrit) orkhandhas (Pāḷi) means "heaps, aggregates, collections, groupings, clusters".[1][note 1] InBuddhism, it refers to thefive aggregates of clinging (Pañcupādānakkhandhā), the five material and mental factors that take part in the perpetual process of craving, clinging and aversion due toAvijja.
They are also explained as the five factors that constitute and explain a sentient being's person and personality,[4][5][6] but this is a later interpretation in response toSarvāstivādin essentialism. The14th Dalai Lama subscribes to this interpretation.[7]
The five aggregates or heaps of clinging are:
form, sense objects (or material image, impression) (rūpa)
sensations (or feelings of pleasure, pain, or indifference (both bodily and mental), created from the coming together of the senses, sense objects, and the consciousness) (vedanā)
perceptions (or the nature of recognizingmarks — making distinctions) (samjna, sañña)
mental activity, formations, or perpetuations (sanskara)
In theTheravada tradition,dukkha (unease, "suffering") arises when one identifies with orclings to the aggregates. This suffering isextinguished by relinquishing attachments to aggregates. Both the Theravada andMahayana traditions assert that the nature of all aggregates is intrinsicallyempty ofindependent existence and that these aggregates do not constitute a "self" of any kind.
Skandha (Sanskrit:स्कन्ध) is a Sanskrit word that means "multitude, quantity, aggregate", generally in the context of body, trunk, stem, empirically observed gross object or anything of bulk verifiable with senses.[1][11] The term appears in the Vedic literature.
The Pali equivalent wordKhandha (sometimes spelledKkhanda)[5] appears extensively in the Pali canon where, stateRhys Davids and William Stede, it means "bulk of the body, aggregate, heap, material collected into bulk" in one context, "all that is comprised under, groupings" in some contexts, and particularly as "the elements or substrata of sensory existence, sensorial aggregates which condition the appearance of life in any form".[1][note 2] Paul Williams et al. translateskandha as "heap, aggregate", stating it refers to the explanation of the psychophysical makeup of any being.[13]
Johannes Bronkhorst rendersskandha as "aggregates".[2] Damien Keown and Charles Prebish state thatskandha isཕུང་པོ། in Tibetan, and the terms mean "collections or aggregates or bundles".[14]
The Buddha teaches in thePali Canon the five aggregates as follows:
"form" or"matter"[note 3] (Skt., Pāliरूप (rūpa); Tib.གཟུགས། (gzugs); Ch.色 (sè)): matter, body or "material form" of a being or any existence.[8][15] Buddhist texts staterūpa of any person, sentient being and object to be composed of four basic elements or forces: earth (solidity), water (cohesion), fire (heat) and wind (motion).[5]
"sensation" or"feeling" (Skt., Pāliवेदना (vedanā); Tib.ཚོར་བ། (tshor ba); Ch.受 (shòu)): sensory experience of an object.[5] It is either pleasant, unpleasant or neutral.[note 4][note 5]
"perception"[note 6] (Skt.संज्ञा (saṃjñā), Pāliसञ्ञा (saññā), Tib.འདུ་ཤེས། ('du shes); Ch.想 (xiǎng)): sensory and mental process that registers, recognizes and labels (for instance, the shape of a tree, color green, emotion of fear).[15]
"mental formations" (Skt.संस्कार (saṃskāra), Pāliसङ्खार (saṅkhāra), Tib.འདུ་བྱེད། ('du.byed); Ch.行 (xíng)): "constructing activities",[15] "conditioned things", "volition", "karmic activities"; all types of mental imprints and conditioning triggered by an object.[16][17][note 7] Includes any process that makes a person initiate action or act.[15]
"consciousness" (Skt.विज्ञान (vijñāna), Pāliविञ्ञाण (viññāṇa), Tib.རྣམ་ཤེས། (sna'i rnam par shes pa); Ch.識 (shí)): "discrimination" or "discernment"[note 8]. Awareness of an object and discrimination of its components and aspects, and is of six types, states Peter Harvey.[15] The Buddhist literature discusses this skandha as,
The five aggregates are often interpreted in the later tradition as an explanation of the constituents of person and personality,[20][21] and "the list of aggregates became extremely important for the later development of the teaching".[21] According to this interpretation, in eachskandha – body, sensations, perceptions, mental formations, and consciousness – there is emptiness and no substance.[5][2]
According to Damien Keown and Charles Prebish, canonical Buddhism asserts that "the notion of a self is unnecessarily superimposed upon five skandha" of a phenomenon or a living being.[14] Theskandha doctrine, states Matthew MacKenzie, is a form of anti-realism about everyday reality including persons, and presents an alternative to "substantialist views of the self".[22] It asserts that everything perceived, each person and personality, is an "aggregate, heap" of composite entities without essence.[22]
According to Harvey, the five skandhas give rise to a sense of personality,[23] but aredukkha (unsatisfying), impermanent, and without an enduring self or essence.[5][note 13] Each aggregate is an object of grasping (clinging), at the root of self-identification as "I, me, myself".[5] According to Harvey, realizing the real nature ofskandhas, both in terms of impermanence and non-self, is necessary for nirvana.[31][note 1] This "emptiness from personality" can be found in descriptions of the enlightened, perfected state ofArhat andTathagata,[32] in which there is no longer any identification with the five skandhas.[note 14]
This "no essence" view has been a topic of questions, disagreements, and commentaries since ancient times, both in non-Buddhist Indian religions and Buddhist traditions.[22][33] The use of theskandhas concept to explain the self is unique to Buddhism among major Indian religions,[34][35] and responds toSarvastivada teachings that "phenomena" or its constituents are real.[36] It also contrasts with the premise ofHinduism andJainism that a living being has an eternal soul or metaphysical self.[34][35]
In some early Buddhist texts, the individual is considered unreal but theskandha are considered real. But theskandha too are considered unreal and nonsubstantial in numerous other Buddhist Nikaya and Āgama texts.[37]
According toThanissaro, theBuddha never tried to define what a "person" is, though scholars tend to approach the skandhas as a description of the constituents of the person.[20][38] He adds that almost any Buddhist meditation teacher explains it that way, as Buddhist commentaries from about the 1st century CE onwards have done. In Thanissaro's view, however, this is incorrect, and he suggests thatskandhas should be viewed as activities, which cause suffering, but whose unwholesome workings can be interrupted.[20]
Rupert Gethin also notes that the five skandhas are not merely "the Buddhist analysis of man", but "five aspects of an individual being's experience of the world... encompassing both grasping and all that is grasped".[39][note 15]
Mathieu Boisvert states that "many scholars have referred to the five aggregates in their works on Buddhism, [but] none have thoroughly explained their respective functions".[40] According to Boisvert, the five aggregates and dependent origination are closely related, which explains the process that binds us tosamsara.[41] Boisvert notes that thepancha-upadanakkhanda(five aggregates of clinging) does not incorporate all human experience.[42]Vedana may transform into eitherniramisa ornekkhamma-sita vedana (vedana which is not harmful) or intoamisa orgehasita vedana (a "type of sensation [which] may act as an agent bringing about the future arising of craving and aversion").[40] This is determined bysanna.[40] According to Boisvert, "not allsanna belong to thesanna-skandha". The wholesomesanna recognise the three marks of existence (dukkha,anatta,anicca), and do not belong to thesanna-skandha. Unwholesomesanna is not "conducive to insight", and without propersanna, the "person is likely to generate craving, clinging and becoming".[43] As withsanna, "not allsankhara belong to thesankharaskandha", since not allsankhara produce future effects.[43]
According to Johannes Bronkhorst, the notion that the five aggregates are not self has to be viewed in light of debates about "liberating knowledge", the knowledge ofĀtman (eternal soul) which was deemed liberating by the Vedic traditions.[44] Bronkhorst notes that "knowledge of the self plays no useful role on the Buddha’s path to liberation".[45][note 16] What is important is not to grasp at the forms, sounds, odors, flavors, objects, and mental properties which are perceived with the six sense organs (these include mind as the sixth sense organ).[46] The insight that the aggregates are not self aids in letting go of this grasping.[45][note 17]
Miri Albahari also objected to the usual understanding of the skandhas as denoting the absence of any "self". Albahari argued that thekhandhas do not necessarily constitute the entirety of the human experience, and that the Hindu concept of Ātman is not explicitly negated by Pāli Canon.[47] According toAlbani[clarification needed], "anattā is best understood as a practical strategy rather than as a metaphysical doctrine".[47] To Albahari,Nibbāna is an ever-present part of human nature, which is gradually "uncovered" by the cessation of ignorance.
A related analysis of experience and personality taught in the Buddhist sutras andAbhidharma systems (includingPali Abhidhamma,Vaibhāṣika and Mahayana Abhidharma alonside the five aggregates is the eighteendhātus (Sanskrit:aṣṭadaśa dhātu, the main "elements" of existence).[note 18] These eighteen aspects of experience: six external bases, six internal bases, and six consciousnesses, function through the five aggregates. They are often grouped together with the aggregates into the following grouping: "skandhas,āyatanas and dhātus," which comprises the basic Buddhist Abhidharma analysis of personal identity and experience.
They eighteen elements are the following:
The six sense objects (viṣayadhātu) are:
visible forms (rūpa-dhātu)
sounds (śabda-dhātu)
smells (gandha-dhātu)
tastes (rasa-dhātu)
textures (spraṣṭavya-dhātu)
mental objects (dharma dhātu)
The six sense faculties (indriyadhātu) are:
eye faculty (cakṣur-dhātu)
ear faculty (śrotra-dhātu)
nose faculty (ghrāṇa-dhātu)
tongue faculty (jihva-dhātu)
body faculty (kāya-dhātu)
mental faculty (mano-dhātu)
The six sense consciousnesses (vijñānadhātu) are:
eye-consciousness (cakṣur-vijñanadhātu)
ear-consciousness (śrotra-vijñanadhātu)
nose-consciousness (ghrāṇa-vijñanadhātu)
tongue-consciousness (jihva-vijñanadhātu)
body-consciousness (kāya-vijñanadhātu)
mind-consciousness (mano-vijñanadhātu)
Thesedhātus can be arranged into six triads, each triad composed of a sense object, a sense organ, and sense consciousness.[note 19]
TheEarly Buddhist schools developed detailed analyses and overviews of the teachings found in the sutras, calledAbhidharma. Each school developed its own Abhidharma. The best-known is theTheravāda Abhidhamma, but theSarvāstivāda Abhidharma was historically very influential, and has been preserved partly in the Chinese Āgama.
The internal and external sense bases together form the "six sense bases". In this description, found in texts such asSalayatana samyutta, the coming together of an object and a sense-organ results in the arising of the corresponding consciousness.
According toBhikkhu Bodhi, the Theravada tradition teaches that the six sense bases accommodate "all the factors of existence"; it is "the all", and "apart from which nothing at all exists",[49] and "are empty of a self and of what belongs to the self".[50][note 20]
The suttas do not describe this[ambiguous] as an alternative of the skandhas. The Abhidhamma, striving to "a single all-inclusive system",[52] explicitly connects the five aggregates and the six sense bases:[52]
The first fiveexternal sense bases (visible form, sound, smell, taste and touch), and the first fiveinternal sense bases (eye, ear, nose, tongue and body) are part of the form aggregate;
The mental sense-object (i.e. mental objects) overlap the first four aggregates (form, feeling, perception and formation);
The mental sense organ (mind) is comparable to the aggregate of consciousness.
Bodhi states that six-sense-bases is a "vertical" view of human experiences while the aggregates is a "horizontal" (temporal) view.[53] The Theravada Buddhist meditation practice on sense bases is aimed at both removing distorted cognitions such as those influenced by cravings, conceits and opinions, as well as "uprooting all conceivings in all its guises".[54]
The Abhidhamma and post-canonical Pali texts create a meta-scheme for theSutta Pitaka's conceptions of aggregates, sense bases and dhattus (elements).[55] This meta-scheme is known as the fourparamatthas or ultimate realities, three conditioned, one unconditioned:
Material phenomena (rūpa, form)
Mind or consciousness (citta)
Mental factors (cetasikas: the nama-factors sensation, perception and formation)
TheTwelve Nidanas is a linear list of twelve elements from theBuddhist teachings which arise in dependence on the preceding link. While this list may be interpreted as describing the processes which give rise to rebirth, in essence it describes the arising ofdukkha as a psychological process, without the involvement of an atman.[56][57]
Some scholars regard it to be a later synthesis of several older lists.[58][59][60][61][56][62] The first four links may be a mockery of the Vedic-Brahmanic cosmogony, as described in theHymn of Creation of Veda X, 129 and theBrihadaranyaka Upanishad.[57][61][62][63][64][65] These were integrated with a branched list that describes the conditioning of mental processes,[60][56][62] akin to the five skandhas.[66] Eventually, this branched list developed into the standard twelvefold chain as a linear list.[60][67]
According to Boisvert, "the function of each of the aggregates, in their respective order, can be directly correlated with the theory of dependent origination—especially with the eight middle links."[68] Four of the five aggregates are explicitly mentioned in the sequence, yet in a different order than the list of aggregates, which concludes withviññāṇa • vijñāna:[69]
which conditions the precursors (saḷāyatana,phassa • sparśa) to sensations (vedanā)
which in turn condition craving (taṇhā • tṛṣṇā) and clinging (upādāna)
which ultimately lead to the "entire mass of suffering" (kevalassa dukkhakkhandha).[note 21]
The interplay between the five-aggregate model of immediate causation and the twelve-nidana model of requisite conditioning is evident, for instance both note the seminal role that mental formations have in both the origination and cessation of suffering.[note 22][note 23]
Mindfulness applies to fourupassanā (domains or bases), "constantly watching sensory experience in order to prevent the arising of cravings which would power future experience into rebirths,"[70] which[ambiguous] also overlap with the skandhas. The four domains are:[71]
According to Grzegorz Polak, the fourupassanā have been misunderstood by the developing Buddhist tradition, including Theravada, to refer to four different foundations. According to Polak, the fourupassanā do not refer to four different foundations of which one should be aware, but are an alternate description of thejhanas, describing how thesamskharas are tranquilized:[76]
thesix sense-bases which one needs to be aware of (kāyānupassanā);
contemplation onvedanās, which arise with the contact between the senses and their objects (vedanānupassanā);
the altered states of mind to which this practice leads (cittānupassanā);
The Mahayana developed out of the traditional schools, introducing new texts and putting other emphases in the teachings, especially shunyata and theBodhisattva-ideal.
ThePrajnaparamita-teachings developed from the first century BCE onward. They emphasise the "emptiness" of everything that exists. This means that there are no eternally existing "essences", since everything isdependently originated. The skandhas too are dependently originated, and lack any substantial existence. According to Red Pine, the Prajnaparamita texts are a historicalreaction to some early Buddhist Abhidhammas. Specifically, it is a response toSarvastivada teachings that "phenomena" or their constituents are real.[36] The prajnaparamita notion of "emptiness" is also consistent with the Theravada Abhidhamma.[further explanation needed][citation needed]
This[ambiguous] is formulated in theHeart Sutra. The Sanskrit version of the "Prajnaparamita Hridaya Sutra" ("Heart Sutra"), which may have been composed in China from Sanskrit texts, and later back-translated into Sanskrit,[note 24] states that the five skandhas are empty of self-existence,[77][note 25][note 26][note 27] and famously states "form isemptiness, emptiness is form.[77] The same is true with feelings, perceptions, mental formations, and consciousness."[78]
TheMadhyamaka school elaborates on the notion of theMiddle Way. Its basic text is theMūlamadhyamakakārikā, written byNagarjuna, who refuted theSarvastivada conception of reality, which reifies dhammas.[79] The simultaneous non-reification of the self and reification of the skandhas has been viewed by some Buddhist thinkers as highly problematic.[80]
TheYogacara school further analysed the workings of the mind, elaborated on the concept of nama-rupa and the five skandhas, and developed the notion of theEight Consciousnesses.
Shunyata, in Chinese texts, is"Wu" (Chinese:無;pinyin:Wú),nothingness.[81][82] In these texts, the relation between absolute and relative wasa central topic in understanding[clarification needed] the Buddhist teachings. The aggregates convey therelative (or conventional) experience of the world by an individual, althoughAbsolute truth is realized through them. Commenting on the Heart Sutra,D.T. Suzuki notes:
When the sutra says that the five Skandhas have the character of emptiness..., the sense is: no limiting qualities are to be attributed to the Absolute; while it is immanent in all concrete and particular objects, it is not in itself definable.[83]
TheTathāgatagarbha Sutras, which concern theBuddha-nature, developed in India but played a prominent role in China. They on occasion speak of the ineffable skandhas of the Buddha (beyond the nature of worldly skandhas and beyond worldly understanding). In theMahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra the Buddha tells of how the Buddha's skandhas are in fact eternal and unchanging. The Buddha's skandhas are said to be incomprehensible to unawakened vision.
TheVajrayana tradition further develops the aggregates in terms ofmahamudra epistemology and tantric reifications.
Referring to mahamudra teachings,Chogyam Trungpa[84] identifies the form aggregate as the "solidification" ofignorance (Pali,avijjā; Skt.,avidyā), allowing one to have the illusion of "possessing" ever dynamic and spaciouswisdom (Pali,vijjā; Skt.vidyā), and thus being the basis for the creation of adualistic relationship between "self" and "other."[note 28]
According toTrungpa Rinpoche,[85] the five skandhas are "a set of Buddhist concepts which describe experience as a five-step process" and that "the whole development of the five skandhas... is an attempt on our part to shield ourselves from the truth of our insubstantiality," while "the practice of meditation is to see the transparency of this shield."[86]
Trungpa Rinpoche writes (2001, p. 38):
[S]ome of the details of tantric iconography are developed from abhidharma [that is, in this context, detailed analysis of the aggregates]. Different colors and feelings of this particular consciousness, that particular emotion, are manifested in a particular deity wearing such-and-such a costume, of certain particular colors, holding certain particular sceptres in his hand. Those details are very closely connected with the individualities of particular psychological processes.
^abThe initial part of the Buddhist practice is purification of each of the above "five aggregates" through meditation, study, ritual and living by virtues, particularly abstaining from mental intoxicants. Ultimately, the practice shifts to considering these as naive, then transcending them to reach the state of realization that there is neither person nor self within, or in any other being, states Harvey, where everyone and everything is without self or substantiality and is a "cluster of changing physical and mental processes".[2][3]
^According to Dalai Lama,skandha means "heap, group, collection or aggregate".[12]
^In Rawson (1991: p.11), the first skandha is defined as: "name and form (Sanskritnāma-rūpa, Tibetangzugs)...". In thePali literature,nāma-rūpa traditionally refers to the first four aggregates, as opposed to the fifth aggregate, consciousness.
^The Pali canon universally identifies thatvedana involves the sensing or feeling of something as pleasant, unpleasant or neutral (see, for instance, SN 22). When contemporary authors elaborate onvedana, they define it similarly (see, for instance,Nhat Hanh, 1999, p. 178; Trungpa, 2001, p. 21; and, Trungpa, 2002, p. 126). The one exception is in Trungpa (1976), pp. 20-23, where he states that the "strategies or impluses" of "indifference, passion and aggression" are "part of the third stage [aggregate]," "guided by perception." (This section of Trungpa, 1976, is anthologized in Trungpa, 1999, pp. 55-58.)
^Generally,vedanā is considered tonot include "emotions." For example, Bodhi (2000a), p. 80, writes: "The Pali wordvedanā does not signify emotion (which appears to be a complex phenomenon involving a variety of concomitant mental factors), but the bare affective quality of an experience, which may be either pleasant, painful or neutral." Perhaps somewhat similarly, Trungpa (1999), p.58, writes: "Consciousness [the fifth aggregate] consists of emotions and irregular thought patterns...."
^Some translate this term asperception although this is typically the translation ofpratyakṣa meaning the apprehension of sensibilia andnot any subsequent judgement concerning them. The English wordconception is more accurate, although this implies less a process and more the static end result (the mental state of holdinga concept)), hencediscrimination is preferred.
^The Theravada Abhidhamma dividessaṅkhāra into fifty mental factors (Bodhi, 2000a, p. 26). Trungpa (2001), pp. 47ff, following the Sarvastivada Abhidharma studied in Mahayana Buddhism, states that there are fifty-one "general types" ofsamskara.
^In commenting on the use of "consciousness" in SN 22.3[1], Bodhi (2000b), pp. 1046-7,n. 18, states: "The passage confirms the privileged status of consciousness among the five aggregates. While all the aggregates are conditioned phenomena marked by thethree characteristics, consciousness serves as the connecting thread ofpersonal continuity through the sequence of rebirths.... The other four aggregates serve as the 'stations for consciousness' (vinnanatthitiyo: see [SN] 22:53-54). Even consciousness, however, is not a self-identical entity but a sequence of dependently arisen occasions of cognizing; see MN I 256-60."
^Harvey writes, "This is in contrast to saññā, which knows by grouping things together, labeling them. This contrast can be seen in terms of the typical objects of these states: colours for saññā (S.III.87), but tastes (S.III.87) or feelings (M.I.292) for viññāṇa. While colours usually be immediately identified, tastes and feelings often need careful consideration to properly identify them: discernment and analysis are needed."
^This conception of consciousness is found in the Theravada Abhidhamma (Bodhi, 2000a, p. 29).
^While not necessarily contradicted by theNikayas, this is a particularly Mahayana statement. For instance, Nhat Hanh (1999, pp. 180-1) states: "Consciousness here meansstore consciousness, which is at the base of everything we are, the ground of all of our mental formations." Similarly, Trungpa (2001, pp. 73-4) states that consciousness "is the finally developed state of being that contains all the previous elements.... [C]onsciousness constitutes an immediately available source of occupation for the momentum of the skandhas to feed on."
^* Dukkha: The firstNoble Truth states that "in brief, the five bundles of grasping-fuel (upadana-skandha) are painful [dukkha]."[5][24] The five aggregates trigger suffering, pain or unsatisfactoriness. Everything that makes a person is a factor ofdukkha, and these in Buddhist thought are not a source of pleasure but of sorrow.[15] Nirvana requires transcendence from all fiveskandhas and the sense objects.[5] * Impermanent: they come into being and dissolve.[15][25] * Anatta: each of theskandhas lacks a self and substantiality.[26] The aggregates are appearances which don't have an essence either separately or together, all that is perceived as an aggregate or a whole has no real existence.[27][22] This is the "non-self" (anatta) doctrine, and it holds that a belief in self is a source ofDukkha (suffering, pain, unsatisfactoriness).[28][29] The explicit denial of substantiality or essence in any of the fiveskandha appears in the early Buddhist texts: "All form is comparable to foam; all feelings to bubbles; all sensations are mirage-like; dispositions are like the plantain trunk; consciousness is but an illusion: so did the Buddha illustrate [the nature of the aggregates]."[30]
^The physical, the personality factors (skandhas), and any sense of Self or I are a burden which the enlightened individual has dropped, thus becoming a "man of nothing", not clinging to anything internal or external.[32] The perfect state of enlightenment is one without any personality, no "I am" conceit, no physical identification, no intellectual identification, no identification in direct or indirects terms related to any of the fiveskandhas, because "a tathagata has abandoned the personality factors".[32] No one can find him because he has no "I", self or identity, while hiscitta expands to infinity; he is beyond the reach of the unenlightened human beings, as well as the army of theMara (demon of death in Buddhism).[32]
^Gethin: "To explain the khandhas as the Buddhist analysis of man, as has been the tendency of contemporary scholars, may not be incorrect as far as it goes, yet it is to fix upon one facet of the treatment of the khandhas at the expense of others. Thus A. B. Keith could write, “By a division which... has certainly no merit, logical or psychological, the individual is divided into five aggregates or groups.” However, the five khandhas, as treated in the nikāyas and early abhidhamma, do not exactly take on the character of a formal theory of the nature of man. The concern is not so much the presentation of an analysis of man as object, but rather the understanding of the nature of conditioned existence from the point of view of the experiencing subject. Thus at the most general level rūpa, vedanā, sañña, and are presented as five aspects of an individual being's experience of the world; each khandha is seen as representing a complex class of phenomena that is continuously arising and falling away in response to processes of consciousness based on the six spheres of sense. They thus become the five upādānakkhandhas, encompassing both grasping and all that is grasped."[39]
^Bronkhorst: "The aim of the teaching of the Buddha is evidently not to discover the real self. On the contrary, the preoccupation with the true nature of the self has to be given up. Only then one is ready to follow the path shown by the Buddha. Seen from this practical point of view, the question as to the existence of the self is of minor importance. The main thing is that knowledge of the self plays no useful role on the Buddha’s path to liberation. As certain non-Buddhist currents asserted a permanent self not subject to change because only knowledge of such a self could be useful to the attainment of liberation, it is probably justified to assume that the Buddha did not accept the existence of such a self."[45]
^Bronkhorst: "Acquiring the insight that the various components of the person are not the self causes a wise and noble listener to turn away from material form, and so on; as a result he becomes free from desire and attains liberation."[45]
^The Pāli worddhātu is used in multiple contexts in the Pāli canon: For instance, Bodhi (2000b), pp. 527–28, identifies four different ways thatdhātu is used including in terms of the "eighteen elements" and in terms of "the four primary elements" (catudhātu).
The first five sense organs (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body) are derivates ofform.
The sixth sense organ (mind) is part ofconsciousness.
The first five sense objects (visible forms, sound, smell, taste, touch) are also derivatives ofform.
The sixth sense object (mental object) includesform,feeling,perception andmental formations.
The six sense consciousnesses are the basis forconsciousness.[48]
^According to Bikkhu Bodhi, theMaha-punnama Sutta, also calledThe Great Full-moon Night Discourse, describes the impermanence of the aggregates to assert that there is no self, and the right discernment is, "this is not mine, this is not my self, this is not what I am". FromMaha-punnama Sutta
[Buddha:] "It's possible that a senseless person — immersed in ignorance, overcome with craving — might think that he could outsmart the Teacher's message in this way: 'So — form is not-self, feeling is not-self, perception is not-self, fabrications are not-self, consciousness is not-self. Then what self will be touched by the actions done by what is not-self?' Now, monks, haven't I trained you in counter-questioning with regard to this & that topic here & there? What do you think — Is form constant or inconstant?" "Inconstant, lord." "And is that which is inconstant easeful or stressful?" "Stressful, lord." "And is it fitting to regard what is inconstant, stressful, subject to change as: 'This is mine. This is my self. This is what I am'?" [Monks:] "No, lord." "... Is feeling constant or inconstant?" "Inconstant, lord."... "... Is perception constant or inconstant?" "Inconstant, lord."... "... Are fabrications constant or inconstant?" "Inconstant, lord."... "What do you think, monks — Is consciousness constant or inconstant?" "Inconstant, lord." "And is that which is inconstant easeful or stressful?" "Stressful, lord." "And is it fitting to regard what is inconstant, stressful, subject to change as: 'This is mine. This is my self. This is what I am'?" "No, lord." "Thus, monks, any form whatsoever that is past, future, or present; internal or external; blatant or subtle; common or sublime; far or near: every form is to be seen as it actually is with right discernment as: 'This is not mine. This is not my self. This is not what I am.'
– Majjhima Nikaya iii 15, Translated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu[51]
^Put another way, it is through the five skandhas that clinging occurs. See, for instance, the Samadhi Sutta (SN 22:5)(Thanissaro, 2006b).
^The apparent distinctions between the nidana model and the khandha model are reduced when, instead of using the twelve-nidana model of the Samyutta Nikaya, chapter 12(e.g., Thanissaro, 1997d), one compares the nine-nidana model of theMaha-nidana Sutta (DN 15)(Thanissaro, 1997a) where consciousness conditions name-and-form and name-and-form conditions consciousness.
^Bodhi (2000b, pp. 839-840) writes: "Whereas the teaching on dependent origination is intended to disclose the dynamic pattern running through everyday experience that propels the round of rebirth and death forward from life to life, the teaching on the five aggregates concentrates on experience in its lived immediacy in the continuum from birth to death." Perhaps in a similar vein, Bodhi (2000b, pp. 762-3, n. 132) notes elsewhere that, according to the Samyutta Nikaya's subcommentary: "There are two kinds oforigin, momentary origin (khanika-samudaya) and origin through conditions (paccaya-samudaya). A bhikkhu who sees one sees the other."
^According to Nattier (1992), the Heart Sutra was originally composed in Chinese and later back-translated into Sanskrit. Thereafter, it became popular in India and later Tibet. Elements in this translation are not present in Chinese versions of this sutra.
^See also Nhat Hanh (1988), p. 1, and Suzuki (1960), p. 26. Nhat Hanh (1988) adds to this first verse the sentence: "After this penetration, he overcame all pain." Suzuki (1960), p. 29, notes that this additional sentence is unique to Hsuan-chuang's translation and is omitted in other versions of the Heart Sutra.
^In the Theravada canon, the English word "self-existence" is a translation of the Sanskrit word svabhava."Svabhava" has also been translated as "self-nature" (Suzuki, 1960, p. 26), "separate self" (Nhat Hanh, 1988, p. 16) and "self-existence" (Red Pine 2004, p. 67). Note that Chinese versions of the Heart Sutra donot contain the notion ofsvabhava. When "emptiness of self" is mentioned, the English word "self" is a translation of thePali word"atta" (Sanskrit,"atman").
^Regarding the termsabhāva (Pali; Skt:svabhāva) in the Pali Canon, Gal (2003), p. 7, writes: "To judge from thesuttas, the termsabhāva was never employed by the Buddha and it is rare in the Pali Canon in general. Only in the post-canonical period does it become a standard concept, when it is extensively used in the commentarial descriptions of thedhammas [conditioned mental and physical processes] and in the sub-commentarial exegesis. The termsabhāva, though, does occur on various occasions in five canonical or para-canonical texts: thePaṭisambhidāmagga, thePeṭakopadesa, theNettippakaraṇa, theMilindapañha and theBuddhavaṃsa." Gal (p. 10) speculates that the use of the termsabhāva in thePaṭisambhidāmagga might be the earliest occurrence in Pali literature and quotes (p. 7, esply.n. 28) from this text (Paṭis. II 178) the application of the phrasesabhāvena suññaṃ (Pali for "empty ofsabhāva") to each of the aggregates—at least superficially similar to an application ofsvabhāva in the Prajnaparamita Hridaya Sutra ("Heart Sutra") cited in this article.
^This type of analysis of the aggregates (where ignorance conditions the five aggregates) might be akin to that described by theTwelve Nidanas.
^The Tibetan Book of the Dead. Translated by Dorje, Gyurnme; Coleman, Graham; Jinpa, Thupten. Introductory commentary by the14th Dalai Lama (First American ed.). New York:Viking Press. 2005. pp. xiii.ISBN0-670-85886-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
Rupert Gethin (16 July 1998).The Foundations of Buddhism. Oxford University Press. pp. 140–149,238–239.ISBN978-0-19-289223-2.,Quote: We have seen how Buddhist thought criticizes the concept of an unchanging self as incoherent; however, both ancient and modern critics have argued that to do away with the self in the manner of Buddhist thought in fact creates insurmountable philosophical and moral problems.... We have seen how Buddhist thought breaks down an individual into five classes of physical and mental events known asskandhas or aggregates".
^Adrian Snodgrass (1992).The Symbolism of the Stupa. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 137 with note 165.ISBN978-81-208-0781-5.. (Snodgrass asserts that the term literally means "heap", and the concept refers to the teaching accepted by all Buddhist schools that "the personality is an aggregate of five constituent parts," referring back to publications from the 1930s to the 1950s.)
Bodhi, Bhikkhu (trans.) (2000b),The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Boston: Wisdom Publications,ISBN978-0-86171-331-8
Ñāṇamoli, Bhikkhu (trans.) & Bodhi, Bhikkhu (ed.) (2001).The Middle-Length Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Majjhima Nikāya. Boston: Wisdom Publications.ISBN0-86171-072-X.
Anthologies of suttas
Bodhi, Bhikkhu (ed.) (2005a).In the Buddha's Words: An Anthology of Discourses from the Pāli Canon. Boston: Wisdom Pubs.ISBN0-86171-491-1.
Buddhaghosa, Bhadantācariya (trans. from Pāli by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli) (1999).The Path of Purification: Visuddhimagga. Seattle, WA: BPS Pariyatti Editions.ISBN1-928706-00-2.
Ñāṇamoli, Bhikkhu (trans.) (1998).Mindfulness of Breathing (Ānāpānasati): Buddhist texts from the Pāli Canon and Extracts from the Pāli Commentaries. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society.ISBN955-24-0167-4.
Soma Thera (trans.) (2003).The Way of Mindfulness. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society.ISBN955-24-0256-5.
Fremantle, Francesca & Trungpa, Chõgyam (2003).The Tibetan Book of the Dead: The Great Liberation Through Hearing in the Bardo. Boston: Shambhala Publications.ISBN1-59030-059-9.
Nhât Hanh, Thich (1988).The Heart of Understanding: Commentaries on the Prajnaparamita Heart Sutra. Berkeley, CA: Parallax Press.ISBN0-938077-11-2.
Nhât Hanh, Thich (1999).The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching. NY: Broadway Books.ISBN0-7679-0369-2.
Red Pine (2004).The Heart Sutra. Emeryville, CA: Shoemaker & Hoard.ISBN1-59376-009-4.
Boisvert, Mathieu (1995),The Five Aggregates. Understanding Theravada Psychology and Soteriology, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, for the Canadian Corporation for Studies in Religion / Corporation Canadienne des Sciences Religieuses
Frauwallner, Erich (1973), "Chapter 5. The Buddha and the Jina",History of Indian Philosophy: The philosophy of the Veda and of the epic. The Buddha and the Jina. The Sāmkhya and the classical Yoga-system, Motilal Banarsidass
Gal, Noa (July 2003).The Rise of the Concept of ‘Own-Nature’: (Sabhāva) in the Paṭisambhidāmagga [excerpt from Ph.D. thesis]. Oxford: Wolfson College. Retrieved 2008-01-22 from "Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies" atInternet Archive.
Gethin, Ruper (1986), "The five khandhas: Their theatment in the nikāyas and early abhidhamma",Journal of Indian Philosophy,14,doi:10.1007/BF00165825,S2CID170833425
Gombrich, Richard (2009), "Chapter 9. Causation and non-random process",What the Buddha Thought, Equinox
Sue Hamilton. "From the Buddha to Buddhaghosa: Changing Attitudes Toward the Human Body in Theravāda Buddhism." InReligious Reflections on the Human Body, edited by Jane Marie Law. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1995, pp. 46–63.
Sue Hamilton.Identity and Experience: the Constitution of the Human Being According to Early Buddhism. London: Luzac Oriental,
Kalupahana, David (1975).Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism. The University Press of Hawaii.
Kuan, Tse-fu (2008),Mindfulness in Early Buddhism: New Approaches through Psychology and Textual Analysis of Pāli, Chinese and Sanskrit Sources, Routledge,ISBN978-0-415-43737-0
Nattier, Jan (1992). "The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?"Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 153–223.
Polak, Grzegorz (2011),Reexamining Jhana: Towards a Critical Reconstruction of Early Buddhist Soteriology, UMCS
Rawson, Philip (1991).Sacred Tibet. NY: Thames and Hudson.ISBN0-500-81032-X.
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