| Sixth Crusade | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of theCrusades | |||||||||
 Frederick II (left) meets al-Kamil (right) | |||||||||
| |||||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||||
| Holy Roman Empire Teutonic Knights Kingdom of Sicily | Ayyubids ofEgypt Ayyubids ofDamascus | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
| Frederick II Hermann of Salza Thomas of Aquino Peter des Roches William Briwere Henry of Limburg Odo of Montbéliard Richard Filangieri Balian of Sidon Pedro de Montaigu Bertrand de Thessy | Al-Kamil Fakhr ad-Din ibn as-Shaikh An-Nasir Dā’ūd | ||||||||
TheSixth Crusade (1228–1229), also known as theCrusade of Frederick II, was (like the other Crusades) a military expedition to recaptureJerusalem and the rest of theHoly Land. It began seven years after the failure of theFifth Crusade and involved very little actual fighting. The diplomatic maneuvering of theHoly Roman emperor andking of Sicily,Frederick II, resulted in theKingdom of Jerusalem regaining some control over Jerusalem for much of the ensuing fifteen years as well as over other areas of the Holy Land.[1] Frederick II's negotiations and power-sharing agreement and negotiation with envoys from al-MalikAl-Kamil of Egypt, which led to a shared Christian-Muslim governance situation in Jerusalem, made this Crusade different from the others (and some[who?] call it the only successful one). Frederick II carried out his maneuvers in 1228 while under excommunication from the Church byPope Gregory IX.[2]
TheFifth Crusade ended in 1221, having failed to gain any more influence in the Near East.Frederick II,Holy Roman emperor, never joined the campaign, despite his vow to do so. The forces he sent to Egypt arrived too late to make a difference in the debacle, partially due to the lack of effective leadership. They would have to wait for many more years for Frederick's actions.[3] WhenPope Innocent III died in 1216, his successorHonorius III did not immediately hold Frederick to his vow, but reminded him that the Christian world had waited for his action. HoweverGregory IX, the successor to Honorius, who became pope in March 1227, took a more hardline stance against the emperor. In Syria and Egypt, theAyyubids were engaged in civil strife, in which the sultanal-Kamil fought against many of his brothers and other relatives. The sultan had yet to withdraw his offer of territory in exchange for peace that had been made during the Fifth Crusade, and Fredrick would eventually accept this deal.[4]
The failure of the Fifth Crusade was a devastating blow to Christendom. Of all the European sovereigns, only Emperor Frederick II was in a position to regain Jerusalem after the loss.[5] Frederick was, like many of the 13th-century rulers, a serialcrucesignatus.[6] When he was formally crowned asKing of Germany atAachen on 15 July 1215, he astonished the crowd by taking the cross and calling upon the nobles present to do the same. Twenty years separated the crusader vows ofEmperor Henry VI and his son Frederick and it is unclear whether the father'sGerman Crusade of 1197 impacted the son's objectives for the Fifth Crusade.[7]
The emperor again took the vow when he was re-crowned in Rome by the pope on 22 November 1220. At the same time, Frederick's oldest son,Henry, took the title ofking of the Romans, and Frederick's wife,Constance of Aragon, was crowned empress. A year later, Honorius III reminded Frederick that he had not fulfilled his vow, and in December 1221, sent Nicola de Chiaromonte,cardinal-bishop of Tusculum, to confer with Frederick. They returned toVeroli in April 1222 to confer with the pontiff.[8] A strategy meeting for the next Crusade did not happen until March 1223 atFerentino and included the pope and emperor, plusJohn of Brienne, Latin patriarchRalph of Mérencourt, the masters of the military orders, and many others.[9] Frederick again vowed to go on Crusade in addition to signing an agreement with the errant Thomas of Celano, negotiated byThomas of Aquino. But neither this nor the one signed two years later at San Germano assured Frederick's departure.[10]
A new date was set for the expedition of 24 June 1225. At the same time, Frederick, widowed since June 1222, planned a strategic wedding. After the retreat of the Crusaders from Egypt in 1221,John of Brienne returned to Acre. He hoped to find a suitable husband for his daughterIsabella II of Jerusalem, then just 9 years of age. LeavingOdo of Montbéliard asbailli of the kingdom, he travelled to Italy, accompanied by Patriarch Ralph and Hospitaller masterGuérin de Montaigu. In Apulia, he met with Frederick II and arranged for the marriage of Isabella II to the emperor. The pope gave his blessing, and it was John's understanding that he remain regent until 1226. When John left Italy, marryingBerengaria of León in 1224, he entrustedHermann of Salza to conclude the arrangements for the wedding of his daughter.[11]
Once again, preachers were sent throughout Europe to gain support for a new crusade, this time to be led by Frederick. Despite readying transport ships, the situation did not look good to meet the target date. Hermann of Salza and Ralph of Mérencourt were sent to the pope to apprise him of the situation. That would be one of the patriarch's last official acts, as he died in late 1224, succeeded by the bishop of Valence,Gérold of Lausanne. Honorius III sent cardinal bishopConrad of Porto as papal legate to Germany, urging the clergy there to continue to pursue the crusade.[12] The pope also urgedLouis VIII of France to join Frederick, and to resolve his quarrel withRaymond VII of Toulouse. None of these efforts were fruitful and all were convinced that the timetable set at Ferentino was unachievable. The pope while atRieti agreed to a delay on 18 July 1225, just days before the deadline and ten years after Frederick had originally committed to a crusade.[13]
The Agreement of San Germano of 25 July 1225, signed at present dayCassino, was between Frederick II and Honorius III. A Dominican namedGuala de Roniis was responsible for the negotiations. Frederick promised to depart on the Crusade by 15 August 1227 and remain for two years. During this period, he was to maintain 1000 knights in Syria, provide transport for additional forces, and provide Rome with 100,000 ounces in gold in the care of Hermann of Salza, John of Brienne and the patriarch. These funds would be returned to the emperor once he arrived at Acre. If, for any reason (including his death), he did not arrive, the money would be employed for the needs of the Holy Land. He also promised that if he went on Crusade that he would lead. After the agreement was signed, Guala becameBishop of Brescia. Based on the terms of the agreement, Frederick's forces ceased to occupy portions of thepontifical states. Moreover, all papal possessions in theKingdom of Sicily were to be restored to the pope.[14]
Frederick attested to the terms at the high altar with his hand on the Gospels. Apostolic legateRainald of Urslingen, theduke of Spoleto, swore "on the soul of the emperor" that the agreement would be upheld under the pain of excommunication. In a letter to the pope, Frederick reiterated the terms and accepted the ban in the event the Crusade did not happen. He had committed himself beyond all retreat.[15]
After agreeing with Honorius to launch a Crusade before 1228, Frederick summoned an imperial Diet atCremona, the main pro-imperial city inLombardy. The main arguments for holding the Diet would be to continue the struggle against heresy, to organize the crusade, and to restore the imperial power in northern Italy, long usurped by the numerous communes located there. Those assembled responded with the reformation of theLombard League, which had already defeated the emperorFrederick I in the 12th century, and again Milan was chosen as the league's leader. The Diet was cancelled as well as theTruce of Constance. The situation was stabilized only through a compromise reached by Honorius between Frederick and the league. During his sojourn in northern Italy, Frederick also invested the Teutonic Knights with the territories in what would become East Prussia, starting what was later called theNorthern Crusades.[16]
Frederick II desired to go to the Holy Land as king of Jerusalem. He married John of Brienne's daughterIsabella II by proxy in August 1225 at Acre, presided over by Giacomo, thebishop of Patti. In accordance with her father's wishes, she was crowned queen of Jerusalem a few days later at Tyre. Frederick sent fourteen galleys for her, under the command of admiralHenry of Malta, pardoned since his role at thedisaster at Mansurah during the Fifth Crusade. They were formally married atBrindisi on 9 November 1227.[17]
John and Frederick's relationship became frayed, as Frederick claimed the kingship of Jerusalem. John had allegedly been given assurances that he would be king of Jerusalem for the rest of his life. According to one version, John got into a disagreement with his new son-in-law because Frederick seduced a niece of Isabella who was her lady-in-waiting. In the other version of the chronicle, John often chastised his son-in-law, concluding that John wanted to seize Sicily for his nephewWalter IV of Brienne. Frederick declared that John had lost his claim to the kingdom when Isabella married him. He proclaimed himself king of Jerusalem for the first time in December 1225, taking the crown at a special ceremony atFoggia.[18]
John of Brienne left for Rome, where Honorius sympathized with him, and ignored Frederick's claims.Balian of Sidon, Simon of Maugastel, thearchbishop of Tyre, and the other Jerusalemite lords who had escorted Isabella to Brindisi acknowledged Frederick as their lawful king.[19] Notably, these did not include theIbelins. Nevertheless, the law––theAssizes of Jerusalem––required that the monarch be a resident of the kingdom. Frederick's first royal decree was to bestow new privileges upon Hermann of Salza and the Teutonic Knights, placing them on equal footing as the Templars and Hospitallers.Thomas of Aquino, the emperor's long-time advisor, replaced Odo of Montbéliard asbailli of the kingdom.[20]
In November 1222,John of Brienne arrived atBrindisi, the first king of Jerusalem to visit Europe, with multiple objectives. The treasury of the kingdom was depleted and additional funds were badly needed. He also wanted to ensure that future crusades were not hampered by the divided leadership shown in Egypt, and that the kingdom would lead such efforts. John's pleas for support at the courts of England and Spain were for naught, and the pledge he received fromPhilip II of France on his death-bed was from an account already allocated to the Holy Land.Henry III of England did eventually implement a levy but it is not clear that much was made from the voluntary contributions.[21]
The conciliar decreeAd Liberandam published at theFourth Lateran Council in 1215 formed a system of public financing of Crusades.[22] The disbursements from thepapal camera formed essential aid to the crusade movement, although the monies collected by individualcrucesignati remained important. While some of these funds went directly to local Crusaders, by 1220, Innocent III had consolidated distribution. Frederick did not benefit from this, and from 1221 to 1228 there was limited ecclesiastical impost directed toward his planned Crusade.[23] The funds for this imperial Sixth Crusade would have to be raised by the emperor. The gold sequestered after San Germano was quickly spent due to the delay of the crusade, and Frederick implemented a levy on Sicily beginning in 1228. He also gained financial support from Cyprus and as his new role as king of Jerusalem, but the lack of funds contributed to the small size of the Crusader army.[24]
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The defeat of the Crusaders in the Fifth Crusade was a joint effort of the brothersal-Kamil,al-Mu'azzam andal-Ashraf. After 1221, al-Mu'azzam returned to Damascus, suspicious of his brothers and their motivations. In June 1222, he conducted an expedition againstGuy I Embriaco to enforce the truce, and unsuccessfully attacked his cousinal-Nasir Kilij Arslan, emir ofHama, and later occupyingMa'arrat al-Numan andSalamiyah. Al-Mu'azzam was forced to halt his siege of Hama and to surrender his other conquests by order of al-Kamil. He then formed an alliance withGökböri, a former general ofSaladin's, possibly at the request of the sultanal-Nasir, against his brother al-Ashraf.[27]
Another brother,al-Muzaffar Ghazi, had been installed atMayyafariqin andAkhlat, losing Akhlat to al-Ashraf after revolting against him. Ghazi joined the rebellion of al-Mu'azzam's, which was quickly suppressed by al-Ashraf and the Alleppine forces. Again attacking atHoms, al-Mu'azzam was restrained by threats from al-Kamil. Now opposing both of his well-positioned brothers, al-Mu'azzam reached out to disaffected members of the sultan's Egyptian forces, challenging the sultan to come to Syria if he dared. Against al-Ashraf, he enlisted the aid of theKhwarazmians under the shahJalal al-Din Mangburni to attackDiyar Bakr.[28]
In 1226, al-Mu'azzam again moved on Homs, whileGökböri attackedMosul andal-Jazira. Al-Ashraf stopped his brother at Homs and called on theSeljuk Sultan of Rûm,Kayqubad I, to help him with Gökböri. In the end, both al-Ashraf andBadr al-Din Lu'lu', ruler of Mosul, succumbed to al-Mu'azzam, but not before Jalal had invested himself in Akhlat and laterAzerbaijan. His suzerainty over Akhlat was recognized by al-Mu'azzam, who also held al-Ashraf at Damascus. At this point, al-Kamil began exploring peace with the West, dispatching the emirFakhr ad-Din ibn as-Shaikh to meet Frederick II (see below).[29]
By May 1227, al-Kamil was concerned for his sultanate, feeling increasingly boxed in. The arrival of the Crusaders began, and he was again considering his offer of Jerusalem made to Frederick II in 1226, that appearing to him as the only viable option. However, by May 1227, al-Ashraf had been released from Damascus, and the emirsal-Nasir Kilij Arslan at Hama andal-Mujahid at Homs turned against al-Mu'azzam. Fearing the Crusaders gathering at Acre, al-Mu'azzam began, as he did in the Fifth Crusade, to dismantle the defences of his fortresses, including Jerusalem.[30]
Al-Mu'azzam died on 12 November 1227, and was succeeded by his sonan-Nasir Dā’ūd, with al-Kamil's approval. Peace among the Ayyubids did not last long. Dā’ūd refused his uncle's request to abandonKrak de Montreal. Then, yet another brother,al-Aziz Uthman ofBanyas, attacked emirBahram Shah ofBaalbek. Ordered to stand down by Dā’ūd, al-Aziz persisted and al-Kamil responded by taking Jerusalem and Nablus in July 1228. Al-Ashraf was summoned to Damascus and he met al-Kamil atTall al-Ajul. There it was decided that al-Ashraf would take Damascus, leaving Dā’ūd with al-Jazira. Al-Kamil remained in Jerusalem to conduct negotiations with Frederick II.[30]
By 1226, it was clear that the Sixth Crusade would, in fact, happen with an invasion of Syria and Palestine with the objective of conquering Jerusalem. Frederick II was to lead the Crusade, essentially boxed in by the terms of San Germano. After the death of Honorius III in 1227, the new popeGregory IX entered the curia with determination to proceed and a long-held dislike for Frederick.[31]
The initial phase of the Crusade was a complex endeavour involving multiple deployments, negotiations with the Ayyubids, a delay of the departure of Frederick due to illness, a subsequent excommunication, and, finally, arrival of the emperor at Acre. The key points in the timeline are:
After a five-week stopover in Cyprus, in September 1228, Frederick arrived at Acre.[32]
The new role of Frederick also affected the objective of the Crusade. In 1224, the plans to invade Egypt required suitable ships able to enter the Nile delta. Now, the emphasis was a campaign to focus on Jerusalem, with men from Germany and finance from Sicily.Oliver of Paderborn, so effective in recruiting for the Fifth Crusade, participated in the recruitment and even joined the army gathering in Italy, but was not as successful. His diminished role was replaced by bishopConrad of Hildesheim. The landgraveLouis of Thuringia[33] took the cross in 1226 and withWalran of Limburg inspired hundreds of Thuringian and Austrian knights to join. They also drew significant support from Cologne, Lübeck and Worms. Many prelates andministeriales also joined, including the poetFreidank. The numbers and prowess of the German crusades provided hope to the expedition planners.[34]
Henry III of England took the cross upon his coronation in May 1220 and had planned a crusade afterLouis IX of France's failures.[35] In 1223,Honorius III appealed to Henry to assist in the Holy Land. But, like his fatherJohn Lackland before him, crises closer to home took precedence. Nevertheless, there was to be significant English participation in the Sixth Crusade.[36]
William Briwere, thebishop of Exeter, participated in the Crusade as a proxy for his uncleWilliam Brewer, who died before he was able to fulfill his crusading vows. Brewer had taken the cross in 1189, but was excused because of administrative duties. Briwere went on the Crusade withPeter des Roches,bishop of Winchester.[37] An army of other Crusaders accompanied them to the Holy Land, although whether they were English or mercenaries recruited on the Continent is unclear. The contingent left from Brindisi in August 1227.[38]
The bishops were influential advisors to Frederick II. As the pope had ordered that no one collaborate with the excommunicate Frederick, both bishops ignored the papal orders and worked closely with Frederick. The financial resources both bishops brought were especially appreciated by the crusaders. The fortifications ofCaesarea andJaffa were implemented with their money. Both witnessed the treaty signing in February 1229 with al-Kamil.[39]
As described above, the sultan al-Kamil was in a desperate civil conflict in 1226. Having unsuccessfully tried negotiations with the West beginning in 1219, he again tried this approach. The sultan sent the emirFakhr ad-Din ibn as-Shaikh to Frederick asking him to come to Acre for discussions, offering return of much of the Holy Land to Christian control in exchange for military support against his brother al-Mu'azzam at Damascus. Fakhr ad-Din reportedly was somewhat amazed when he reached Palermo and discovered that Frederick spoke Arabic, had admiration for Muslim society and contempt for Rome.[40]
Frederick responded by sending hisbailli and trusted advisor Thomas of Aquino andBerardus de Castacca,archbishop of Palermo, to meet with al-Kamil. Other than an exchange of gifts, nothing was accomplished. The bishop is reported to have continued on the Damascus to negotiate with al-Mu'azzam who, rejecting the overture, attempted to make peace with the younger Ayyubid brother al-Ashraf. The negotiations would continue in the autumn of 1227, after Frederick's excommunication, as described below.[41]
The port of Brindisi was designated as the departure point and by mid-summer 1227, large numbers of Crusaders had arrived. The crowded conditions and high heat contributed to general discontent and disease among the assembled troops. Many returned home, leaving some transports unused. Others died, including Siegfried von Rechberg, thebishop of Augsburg.
The first contingents of Crusaders sailed August 1227 and arrived in Syria early October. They included Germans under the command ofThomas of Aquino andHenry of Limburg, and French and English under the command of the bishopsPeter des Roches andWilliam Briwere. Arriving at Acre, they joined with forces of the kingdom and fortified the coastal towns of Caesarea and Jaffa. They forced the Muslims of Damascus out of Sidon and fortified the island ofQal'at al-Bahr. The Germans rebuiltMontfort Castle, northeast of Acre, for the Teutonic Knights.[42]
The emperor and his contingent were delayed while their ships were refitted. They sailed on 8 September 1227, but before they reached their first stop ofOtranto many, including Frederick, were struck with the plague. Louis of Thuringia had, in fact, died. Frederick disembarked to secure medical attention. Resolved to keep his oath, he sent a fleet of twenty galleys on to Acre.[43] This included Hermann of Salza, Gérold of Lausanne, Odo of Montbéliard and Balian of Sidon. The Crusade was now under the command ofHenry IV, Duke of Limburg.
In February or March 1228,al-Aziz Uthman of Banyas ambushed a group of crusaders near Tyre, killing or capturing some seventy horsemen.[44]
Frederick II sent his emissaries to inform Gregory IX of the situation. These includedRainald of Spoleto, Nicolò dei Maltraversi,Lando of Anagni, thearchbishop of Reggio, andMarino Filangieri, thearchbishop of Bari, but the pope refused to meet with them, and would not listen to Frederick's side of the story. Frederick II, the Holy Roman Emperor, was excommunicated on 29 September 1227.[45]
The pope did not know, or care, about Frederick's illness, just that he had not lived up to his agreement. His letter to the emperor of 10 October 1227 laying out conditions for his rehabilitation referred less to the crusade than to infractions in Sicily. In his circular letter announcing the excommunication, Frederick was branded a wanton violator of his sacred oath taken many times, at Aachen, Veroli, Ferentino, and San Germano, and was held responsible for the deaths of Crusaders at Brindisi. He was accused of feigning his illness, relaxing atPozzuoli, rather than in the Holy Land. Frederick's response was more factual, and included an appeal for more to take the cross.[46]
In November 1227, the sultan's emissaryFakhr ad-Din ibn as-Shaikh was again sent to meet with the emperor. It is here that it is believed the Fakhr ad-Din was knighted by Frederick, as described byJean de Joinville, chronicler of the Seventh Crusade.[47] The negotiations were conducted in secret, causing concern among the German Crusaders. Even the amiable poetFreidank, positively disposed towards the emperor, expressed his sorrow.[48] Shortly after Fakhr ad-Din had departed, the emperor's negotiatorThomas of Aquino sent word that al-Mu'azzam had suddenly died on 12 November 1227. This revelation changed the balance of power, and Frederick dispatchedRichard Filangieri, marshal of the Kingdom of Sicily, to Syria with 500 knights to augment to force already there as he prepared for a departure in the spring of 1228.[49]
Frederick made his last effort to be reconciled with Gregory, sendingAlbert I of Käfernburg, the archbishop of Magdeburg, and two Sicilian justiciars to speak with the pope. It had no effect and Frederick sailed from Brindisi on 28 June 1228. The fleet was under the command of admiralHenry of Malta, and clergymen Berardus de Castacca, Nicolò dei Maltraversi, Marino Filangieri, and Giacomo of Patti, nowarchbishop of Capua, accompanied him. He had only a small force with him, since the main force had sailed in August 1227 and reinforcements in April 1228.[50]Guérin de Montaigu, master of the Hospitallers who had helped convince the pope to break the truce with the Muslims, refused to accompany Frederick as an excommunicate. He was replaced byBertrand de Thessy, who embarked with the emperor.[51]
The route of Frederick's fleet can be traced day-by-day. On 29 June 1228 it stopped inOtranto, whence it crossed theAdriatic Sea to the island ofOthonoi on 30 June. It was inCorfu on 1 July, Porto Guiscardo inCephalonia on 2 July,Methoni on 4 July, Portocaglie nearCape Matapan on 5 July,Cerigo on 6 July and it reachedSouda Bay onCrete on 7 July. The fleet moved slowly along the Cretan coast, pausing for a whole day atHeraklion before crossing theAegean Sea toRhodes during 12–15 July. They sailed along theAnatolian coast to Phenika, where they stayed on 16–17 July replenishing their water supplies. The fleet then crossed the sea to Cyprus, arriving atLimassol on 21 July.[50]
TheKingdom of Cyprus had been an imperial fief since the emperorHenry VI, Frederick's father, had accepted the homage ofAimery of Lusignan and made him king on the eve of theGerman Crusade in 1196.Hugh I of Cyprus had ruled the island kingdom since the death of his father Aimery in 1205. Upon his death, his wifeAlice of Champagne became regent of the young kingHenry I of Cyprus. Alice was the aunt of the empress Isabella II and had attended her coronation in Tyre. In the meantime,John of Ibelin, the Old Lord of Beirut, had been appointed regent without the knowledge of either Alice or Frederick.[52][53]
The emperor arrived with the clear intent of stamping his authority on the kingdom and was treated cordially by the local barons. Frederick claimed that the regency of John of Ibelin was illegitimate and demanded the surrender of John's mainland fief ofBeirut to the imperial throne. Here he erred, for John pointed out that the kingdoms of Cyprus and Jerusalem were constitutionally separate and he could not be punished for offences in Cyprus by seizure of Beirut. This would have important consequences for the crusade, as it alienated the powerfulIbelin faction, turning them against the emperor.[54]
Frederick sailed to Acre fromFamagusta on 3 September 1228. He was accompanied by the king Henry I of Cyprus, John of Ibelin, and many Cypriote nobles. He left the Cypriote baronAmalric Barlais asbailli of Cyprus, supported by Gavin of Chenichy.[55]
Frederick II arrived in Acre on 7 September 1228 and was received warmly by the Templars, Hospitallers and clergy, but denied thekiss of peace due to his excommunication. He yielded to pressure and made overtures to the pope, sendingHenry of Malta and archbishop Marino Filangieri to announce his arrival in Syria and to request absolution.Rainald of Spoleto was named Frederick's regent in Sicily authorized to negotiate with Rome. But Gregory IX had already made up his mind, sending word to the Latin patriarch and masters of the military orders that the emperor's ban still held, despite his arrival.[56]
When Frederick and his companions arrived at Acre, John of Ibelin went immediately to Beirut to ensure that the city could withstand an imperial attack, returning to face theHaute Cour. Frederick did not immediately take action as Acre was split in its support for Frederick. Frederick's own army and the Teutonic Knights supported him, but the Templars, the patriarch and the Syrian clergy followed the hostile papal line. The Pisans and Genoese supported the emperor and the English vacillated, first for Frederick, shifting to the pope, then back. He gave nominal commands to faithful adherents—Hermann of Salza,Odo of Montbéliard,Richard Filangieri—in order for Crusaders to avoid jeopardizing their positions in the eyes of the curia. Once news of Frederick's excommunication had spread, public support for him waned considerably. The position of the Hospitallers and Templars was more complicated. They refused to join the emperor's army directly, but they supported the Crusade once Frederick agreed to have his name removed from official orders. The Outremer barons greeted Frederick enthusiastically at first, but were wary of the emperor's history of centralization and his desire to impose imperial authority. This was largely due to Frederick's treatment ofJohn of Ibelin in Cyprus, and his apparent disdain for their constitutional concerns.[57]
Frederick's army was not large. Of the troops he had sent under dukeHenry of Limburg in 1227 had mostly returned home out of impatience or of fear of offending the Church. The few who had sailed East under the patriarchGérold of Lausanne remained as did the knights underRichard Filangieri. Even augmented with the forces available in Outremer, he could not muster an effective army capable of striking a decisive blow on the Muslims. Further, he got word that his regentRainald of Spoleto had failed in his attack on theMarch of Ancona and that Gregory IX was planning toinvade his own kingdom. He could neither afford nor mount a lengthening campaign in the Holy Land. The Sixth Crusade would be one of negotiation.[58]
After resolving the internecine struggles in Syria, al-Kamil's position was stronger than it was a year before when he made his original offer to Frederick. He likely did not know that Frederick's force was a mere shadow of the army that had amassed when the Crusade had originally been called. Frederick realised that his only hope of success in the Holy Land was to negotiate for the return of Jerusalem as he lacked the manpower to engage in battle. He sentThomas of Aquino andBalian of Sidon to inform the sultan of his arrival in the Holy Land. Al-Kamil was friendly but non-committal. In reply, Frederick received the ambassadors of the sultan, includingFakhr ad-Din ibn as-Shaikh, at the Hospitaller camp atRecordane, near Acre. The sultan relocated from Nablus toHiribya, northeast of Gaza, and Thomas and Balian were sent to resume negotiations.[59]
Frederick hoped that a token show of force, a threatening march down the coast, would be enough to convinceal-Kamil to honor a proposed agreement that had been negotiated some years earlier. The masters of the Templars and Hospitallers,Pedro de Montaigu andBertrand de Thessy, accompanied the emperor, at a distance behind as he was excommunicate. In January 1229, Frederick received notice that John of Brienne, serving the curia as rector of aPatrimony of Saint Peter,[60] had taken San Germano and was threateningCapua.[61] This placed Frederick in an awkward position. If he delayed in the Holy Land too long, he could lose his empire. If he left without results, he would be dishonored. He directed Henry of Malta to send twenty galleys to Syria by the following Easter. Fortunately, al-Kamil was occupied with asiege in Damascus against his nephewan-Nasir Dā’ūd. He then agreed to cede Jerusalem to the Franks, along with a narrow corridor to the coast.[62]
The treaty was concluded on 18 February 1229, and also involved a ten-year truce.[63] The English bishopsPeter des Roches andWilliam Briwere were witness to the signing. No complete copy of the treaty has survived, either in Latin nor Arabic. In it, al-Kamil surrendered Jerusalem with the exception of some Muslim holy sites. Frederick also receivedBethlehem andNazareth, part ofSidon district, andJaffa andToron, dominating the coast. Other lordships may have been returned to Christian control, but sources disagree. It was, however, a treaty of compromise. The Muslims retained control over theTemple Mount area of Jerusalem, theJami Al-Aqsa, and theDome of the Rock. The Transjordan castles stayed in Ayyubid hands. Whether Frederick was permitted to restore Jerusalem's fortifications was unclear, although the Crusaders did in fact restore Jerusalem's defensive walls.[64]
The agreement, known sometimes as theTreaty of Jaffa,[65] also included the agreement signed by the different Ayyubid rulers atTell Ajul nearGaza, of which, from al-Kamil's perspective, the treaty with Frederick was just an extension,[66] which allows this agreement to be also called theTreaty of Jaffa and Tell Ajul.[67] Frederick seems to have pledged his support to the sultan against all enemies, including Christian ones. The other Crusader states—Principality of Antioch andCounty of Tripoli—would receive no support in the event of war with the Muslims. The strongholds of the Hospitallers and Templars were leftin statu quo, and aid was not to be provided from any source. Prisoners from this conflict and the previous crusade were to be released. The provisions for the military orders and the possessions ofBohemond IV of Antioch likely reflect their lack of support provided to Frederick.[64]
The patriarch and the masters of the military orders—Gérold of Lausanne,Pedro de Montaigu andBertrand de Thessy—all felt betrayed by the treaty and its concessions making the protection of the Holy city near-impossible.Hermann of Salza approached Gérold with a proposal of reconciliation, but the patriarch saw only deceit, trying to prevent Frederick's entry into Jerusalem by threatening excommunication of the army and placing the city under interdict. He sent archbishopPeter of Caesarea to meet the army, but he was too late.[68]
Frederick entered Jerusalem on 17 March 1229 and received the formal surrender of the city by al-Kamil's agent. He went to theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre the next day and placed the crown on his own head. Hermann of Salza read the emperor's statement, blaming his excommunication not on the pope, but his advisors. It is unknown whether he intended this to be interpreted as his official coronation as King of Jerusalem; the absence of the patriarch rendered it questionable. There is evidence to suggest that the crown Frederick wore was actually the imperial one, but in any case proclaiming his lordship over Jerusalem was a provocative act. Legally, he was actually only regent for his son with Isabella,Conrad II of Jerusalem, who had been born shortly before Frederick left in 1228. Conrad's maternal grandparents wereMaria of Montferrat andJohn of Brienne.[69]
Still wearing his crown, Frederick proceeded to the palace of the Hospitallers where he met with the English bishops and members of the military orders to discuss the fortifications of the city. Not until the morning of 19 March 1229 did Peter of Caesarea arrive to enforce the interdict, which he wisely chose not to do. At any rate, Frederick's interest in Jerusalem was waning, as he was planning to immediately leave. While Frederick was on his way to the harbour he was pelted with dung and entrails by the unappreciative people of Acre.Odo of Montbéliard andJohn of Ibelin quelled the unrest.[70]
On 1 May 1229, Frederick departed from Acre, landing at Cyprus to attend the wedding by proxy ofHenry I of Cyprus toAlice of Montferrat, with the bride later transported to Cyprus by the emperor's supporters. He arrived atBrindisi on 10 June 1229, and it was a month before the pope was aware that he had left the Holy Land. By the autumn, he had regained full possession of his empire. Frederick obtained from the pope relief from his excommunication on 28 August 1230 with theTreaty of San Germano, and he returned to the Hospitallers and the Templars the goods confiscated in Sicily.[71]
The results of the Sixth Crusade were not universally acclaimed. Two letters from the Christian side tell differing stories.[72] In his correspondence toHenry III of England, Frederick touts the great success of the endeavour. In contrast, the letter to the "all the faithful" by the patriarch Gérold of Lausanne paints a darker picture of the emperor and his accomplishments. On the Muslim side, al-Kamil himself was pleased with the accord, but Arabic sources referred to the treaty as "one of the most disastrous events of Islam," laying the blame solely with the sultan.[73] The Muslim historians expressed equal disdain for the sultan and the Holy Roman Emperor.[74]
The ten-year expiration of Frederick's treaty withal-Kamil causedPope Gregory IX to call for a new crusade to secure the Holy Lands forChristendom beyond 1239.[75] This initiated theBarons' Crusade, a disorganized affair which wound up with relatively limited support from both Frederick and the pope, but which nevertheless regained more land than even the Sixth Crusade.
Frederick had set a precedent, in having achieved success on crusade without papal involvement. He achieved success without fighting since he lacked manpower to engage Ayyubids. This was due to the engagement of Ayyubids with the rebellion in Syria. Further crusades would be launched by individual kings, such asTheobald I of Navarre (theBarons' Crusade),Louis IX of France (theSeventh andEighth Crusades), andEdward I of England (theNinth Crusade), effectively demonstrating an erosion of papal authority.
In the Ayyubid camp, the treaty allowed the sultan al-Kamil and his brotheral-Ashraf to focus their energies into defeating their nephewan-Nasir Dā’ūd,emir of Damascus, capturing his capital city in June 1229. An-Nasir, was left subordinate to al-Kamil and in possession ofKerak.
A partial list of those that participated in the Sixth Crusade can be found in the category collections ofChristians of the Sixth Crusade andMuslims of the Sixth Crusade.
Thehistoriography of the Sixth Crusade is concerned with the "history of the histories" of the military campaigns discussed herein as well as biographies of the important figures of the period. Theprimary sources include works written in the medieval period, generally by participants in the Crusade or written contemporaneously with the event. The primary Western sources of the Sixth Crusade include several eyewitness accounts, and are as follows.
The Arabic sources of the Crusade include the following.
Many of these primary sources can be found inCrusade Texts in Translation. German historianReinhold Röhricht also compiled two collections of works concerning the Sixth Crusade:Beiträge zur Geschichte der Kreuzzüg (1888),[92]Geschichte der Kreuzzüge im Umriss (1898),[93] andDie Kreuzfahrt Kaiser Friedrich des Zweiten (1228–1229) (1872). He also collaborated on the workAnnales de Terre Sainte that provides a chronology of the Crusade correlated with the original sources.[94]
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