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| Traditional Chinese | 十六國 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 十六国 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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TheSixteen Kingdoms (simplified Chinese:十六国;traditional Chinese:十六國;pinyin:Shíliù Guó), less commonly theSixteen States, was a chaotic period inChinese history from AD 304 to 439 when northern China fragmented into a series of short-liveddynastic states. Most of these regimes were created by groups such as theXiongnu,Xianbei,Di,Jie, andQiang, who had moved into northern and western China over earlier centuries and rose in rebellion against theWestern Jin dynasty in the early fourth century. Some states were founded by theHan as well. Regardless of their rulers' background, every state adopted dynastic institutions in the Han tradition and styled itself as a legitimate monarchy. These states often fought one another and also contended with theEastern Jin dynasty, which governed the south after the collapse of Western Jin in 317. The era ended in 439, whenNorthern Wei, founded by theTuoba clan of theXianbei, reunified the north. The Eastern Jin dynasty had already collapsed in 420 and been replaced by theLiu Song dynasty, the first of the Southern Dynasties. After the consolidation of the north, Chinese history entered the period known as theNorthern and Southern Dynasties.
The term "Sixteen Kingdoms" was first used by the 6th-century historian Cui Hong in theSpring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms and refers to the five Liangs (Former,Later,Northern,Southern andWestern), four Yans (Former,Later,Northern, andSouthern), three Qins (Former,Later andWestern), two Zhaos (Han/Former andLater),Cheng-Han andXia. Cui Hong did not count several other kingdoms that appeared at the time including theRan Wei,Zhai Wei,Chouchi,Duan Qi,Qiao Shu,Huan Chu,Tuyuhun andWestern Yan. Nor did he include theNorthern Wei and its predecessorDai, because the Northern Wei is considered to be the first of theNorthern Dynasties in the period that followed the Sixteen Kingdoms.
Classical Chinese historians called the period the "Sixteen Kingdoms of the Five Barbarians" (simplified Chinese:五胡十六国;traditional Chinese:五胡十六國;pinyin:Wǔhú Shíliù Guó) because of the active roles played by non-Han ethnicities during this period. Even among the states founded by ethnic Han (Former Liang,Western Liang,Ran Wei andNorthern Yan), several founders had close relations with ethnic minorities. For example, the father ofRan Min, who founded Ran Wei, was adopted by the ethnically Jie Later Zhao ruling family, though Ran Min ordered a genocidal massacre of Jie people after he seized power.Feng Ba, who is considered by some historians to be the founder of the Northern Yan, was an ethnic Han who had prominent Xianbei friends, as well as a Xianbei nickname.Gao Yun, considered by other historians to be the Northern Yan founder, was a member of theGoguryeo royal family who had been adopted by Xianbei nobility.
Due to fierce competition among the states and internal political instability, the kingdoms of this era were mostly short-lived. For seven years from 376 to 383, theFormer Qin briefly unified northern China, but this ended when the Eastern Jin inflicted a crippling defeat on it atthe Battle of Fei River, after which the Former Qin splintered and northern China experienced even greater political fragmentation. The fall of the Western Jin dynasty amidst the rise of non-Han regimes in northern China during the Sixteen Kingdoms period resembles thefall of the Western Roman Empire amidst invasions by theHuns andGermanic tribes in Europe, which also occurred in the 4th to 5th centuries.
From the lateEastern Han dynasty to the earlyWestern Jin dynasty, large numbers of non-Han peoples living along China's northern periphery settled in northern China. Some of these migrants such as theXiongnu andXianbei had been pastoralist nomads from the northern steppes. Others such as theDi andQiang were farmers and herders from the mountains of westernSichuan ofsouthwest China. As migrants, they lived among ethnic Han and weresinified to varying degrees. Many worked as farm laborers. Some attained official positions in the court and military. They also faced discrimination and retained clan and tribal affiliations.
The Han dynasty's defeat of the Xiongnu confederation in theHan–Xiongnu War by Han GeneralDou Xian led to the Han dynasty deporting theSouthern Xiongnu along with theirChanyu into northern China. In 167 AD,Duan Jiong conducted an anti-Qiang campaign and massacred Qiang populations as well as settled them outside the frontier in northern China.[3]Cao Cao had a policy of settling Xiongnu nomads away from the frontier near Taiyuan in modernShanxi province, where they would be less likely to rebel. The Xiongnu abandoned nomadism and the elite were educated in Chinese-Confucian literate culture, but they retained their distinct identity and resented the discrimination they received.[4]
TheWar of the Eight Princes (291–306) during the reign of the second Jin rulerEmperor Hui severely divided and weakened imperial authority. Hundreds of thousands were killed and millions were uprooted by the internecine fighting. Popular rebellions against heavy taxation and repression erupted throughout the country. The numerous tribal groups in the north and northwest who had been heavily drafted into the military then exploited the chaos to seize power.[5] InSichuan region,Li Xiong, a Di chieftain, led a successful rebellion and foundedCheng-Han kingdom in 304. Thus began the creation of independent kingdoms in China as Jin authority crumbled. Most of these kingdoms were founded by non-Chinese tribal leaders who took on Chinese reign names.
During the Sixteen Kingdoms, the Eastern Jin dynasty to the south continued to insist on its status as supreme overlord and refused to treat any of the kingdoms as equals. For instance, when the Later Zhao sent a diplomatic mission to the south to establish equal relations, the Eastern Jin burnt the embassy's gifts and expelled the envoy. Some of the Sixteen Kingdoms such as Former Yan and Former Liang also agreed to nominally recognise the Eastern Jin as their suzerain.[6]
Jin princes and military governors often recruited non-Chinese tribes into their armies in their suppression of rebellions and wars with each other. Also in 304,Liu Yuan, aXiongnu chieftain, who had been fighting in the Jin civil war on the side of PrinceSima Ying, returned home to Shanxi where he reorganized the five tribes of the Xiongnu and declared independence as the successor to theHan dynasty. His regime, later renamed Zhao, is designated by historians as theHan-Zhao.[7]
After Liu Yuan died in 310, his sonLiu Cong killed older brother Liu He and claimed the throne. Liu Congcaptured the Jin capitalLuoyang and Emperor Huai in 311. In 316, Liu Cong's cousinLiu Yao seizedChang'an (modern dayXi'an) andEmperor Min, ending the Western Jin dynasty.Sima Rui, a Jin prince who had moved to the South, continued the dynasty as the Eastern Jin fromJiankang (modern dayNanjing). The collapse of Jin authority in the North led other leaders to declare independence. In 315,Tuoba Yilu, a Xianbei chieftain, founded theDai in modern-dayInner Mongolia. In 318,Zhang Shi, the ethnic Chinese governor of Liangzhou founded theFormer Liang in modern-dayGansu.
After Liu Cong's death, the kingdom was split betweenLiu Yao and GeneralShi Le.Shi Le was an ethnicJie who had worked as an indentured farm laborer before joiningLiu Yuan's rebellion and becoming a powerful general inHebei. In 319, he founded a rival Zhao Kingdom, known as theLater Zhao and in 328 conquered Liu Yao's Han-Zhao. Shi Le instituted a dual-system of government that imposed separate rules for Chinese and non-Chinese, and managed to control much of northern China. After his death, his sons were locked in a fratricidal succession struggle and the kingdom was ended in 350 by GeneralRan Min, an ethnic Chinese who seized the throne and founded theRan Wei. Ran Min favored Han Chinese and massacred thousands of Jie. He wasdefeated and killed in 352 by theMurong Xianbei fromLiaodong.
In 337,Murong Huang founded theFormer Yan in Liaodong, which by 356 had expanded into much ofHebei,Henan andShandong. For a time, the Former Yan vied for supremacy in northern China with theFormer Qin.
The Former Qin was founded in 351 byFu Jian (317–355), a Di general, who had served under the Later Zhao and surrendered to the Jin before declaring independence inShaanxi. After his death in 355, the kingdom was briefly handed to his sonFu Sheng, before his nephewFu Jian (337–385) took control of the leadership. Under the younger Fu Jian, who was guided byWang Meng, an ethnic Chinese advisor, the Former Qin strengthened rapidly. From 370 to 76, the Former Qin extinguished the Former Yan, Dai and Former Liang to unite all of northern China. Fu Jian also capturedSichuan from the Eastern Jin and wanted to conquer the rest of southern China. Wang Meng opposed this move, citing the need for the Former Qin to consolidate control over various ethnicities in northern China, whileQiang chieftainYao Chang and Xianbei generalMurong Chui both supported the idea. In 383, after Wang Meng's death, Fu Jian launched a massive invasion of southern China, but was he was routed in a devastating defeat at theBattle of Feishui, in which Eastern Jin troops vanquished a much larger Former Qin force.
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After the Battle of Feishui, the power of the Former Qin quickly unraveled as various regimes in the North broke loose. In 384, Murong Chui founded theLater Yan in Hebei. OtherMurong royals founded theWestern Yan in Shanxi. Yao Chang founded theLater Qin in easternGansu. Fu Jian was killed by Yao Chang, but the Former Qin survived by relocating from Shaanxi to Gansu and thenQinghai. In 385,Qifu Guoren, a Xianbei former vassal under Fu Jian, founded theWestern Qin. In 386,Lü Guang, a Di general of the Former Qin, founded theLater Liang in western Gansu whileTuoba Gui revived the Dai as theNorthern Wei. In 388,Zhai Liao, an ethnicDingling leader in Henan founded theZhai Wei, which was wedged between the Later Yan, Western Yan and Eastern Jin. As many as seven kingdoms coexisted for nine years.
The Later Qin, which ended the Former Qin in 394, the Western Qin in 400, and Later Liang in 403, extended its control over much of Shaanxi, Gansu, andNingxia. But in 407,Helian Bobo, a Xiongnu chieftain, rebelled and founded theXia in northern Shaanxi, and the Western Qin was revived in the southern Shaanxi. In 416, the Eastern Jin under GeneralLiu Yu launched a northern expedition that capturedLuoyang andChang'an and extinguished the Later Qin. The Eastern Jin could not hold these cities as Liu Yu returned south toseize the Jin throne. The Xia kingdom quickly seized Chang'an.
In theHexi Corridor of western Gansu, the Later Liang splintered into theNorthern Liang andSouthern Liang in 397. The Southern Liang was founded byTufa Wugu, a Xianbei, inLedu, Qinghai. The Northern Liang was founded by an ethnic Chinese,Duan Ye inZhangye, Gansu with the support ofJuqu Mengxun, a Xiongnu, who then seized control of the kingdom in 401. In 400,Li Gao, the Chinese commander atDunhuang broke away from theNorthern Liang and founded the short-livedWestern Liang. The Western Liang was reabsorbed by the Northern Liang in 421. Li Gao's descendants would go on to found theTang dynasty in the 7th century. The Southern Liang was conquered by the Western Qin in 414, and the Northern Liang lasted until 439, when it surrendered to the Northern Wei.
The Later Yan conquered the Zhai Wei in 392 and the Western Yan in 394, but lost a series of engagements to the Northern Wei. In 397, the Northern Wei captured Hebei and splitting the Later Yan into two.Murong Bao moved the Later Yan capital north toLiaoning butMurong De refused to move north and founded theSouthern Yan in Henan and Shandong. The Southern Yan was extinguished by the Eastern Jin in 410. The Later Yan lasted until 407 when GeneralFeng Ba, killedEmperor Murong Xi and installedGao Yun. Gao Yun, a descendant ofGoguryeo royalty who was adopted into the Murong court, is considered either the last emperor of the Later Yan or the founding emperor of theNorthern Yan. In 409, he was killed by Feng Ba, a Han Chinese assimilated to Xianbei culture, who took control of the Northern Yan.
During its century-long rule of southern China, the Eastern Jin dynasty, though beset by local rebellions and insurrections, made several attempts to recapture the North, and managed to make some inroads, but were ultimately unsuccessful.[8] In 313,Sima Rui, the Yuan Emperor gaveZu Ti 1,000 men and 3,000 bolts of cloth for a northern expedition. Despite meager resources, Zu Ti managed to recapture a large swath of Henan south of theYellow River and repeatedly defeated Shi Le's Later Zhao forces. Eastern Jin Emperors were wary of generals acquiring power and prestige from successful northern expeditions and threatening the throne. The Yuan Emperor did not entrust Zu Ti with the command of much larger expeditionary force in 321. A disappointed Zu Ti died of illness. The expeditionary force was called back to Jiankang to quell an insurrection, and Shi Le retook Henan.
In 347, Jin generalHuan Wen invaded Sichuan and ended the Cheng-Han kingdom. He then launched successive expeditions against northern kingdoms, briefly retaking Chang'an from the Former Qin in 354 and Luoyang fromQiang chieftainYao Xiang in 356. In 369, he led a large force across the Yellow River into Hebei but was defeated by the Former Yan. In 383, the Eastern Jin reclaimed Henan south of the Yellow River after turning back the Former Qin in the Battle of Feishui in 383, but lost that territory once the northern kingdoms strengthened.
Huan Wen had pretensions to seize power and deposedEmperor Fei in favor ofEmperor Jianwen in 371. His sonHuan Xuan briefly took the throne fromEmperor An in a palace coup in 403, but was defeated by generalLiu Yu.
Liu Yu also used northern expeditions to build up his power. In 409–10, he led Jin forces in theBattle of Linqu, defeating and destroying the Southern Yan in Shandong. In 416, he took advantage of the death of the Later Qin ruler, invaded Henan and captured Luoyang, and then turned toward Shaanxi and seized Chang'an. The last Later Qin ruler Yao Hong surrendered and was sent to Jiankang and executed. With the Later Qin destroyed, several smaller states in the northwest, Western Qin, Northern Liang and Western Liang, nominally submitted to Eastern Jin authority. But Liu Yu retreated back to Jiankang to plan his takeover of the Jin throne, and Chang'an was taken by the Xia forces. In 420, Liu Yu forced theEmperor Gong to abdicate and declared himself emperor of theLiu Song dynasty. In 423, he planned to launch an expedition against the Northern Wei, but died of illness. The Liu Song dynasty ruled southern China until 479.
The ancestral home of theTuoba Xianbei was theGreater Khingan range of Inner Mongolia. In 258, the clan migrated south to theYin Mountains and spread into theOrdos Loop region. In 315, chief Tuoba Yilu was recognized as the Prince of Dai by the Jin Emperor. In 338,Tuoba Shiyiqian formally declared Dai's independence and built the capital at Shengle (modern dayHoringer County,Hohhot). In 376, the Former Qin attacked Shengle and drove the Tuoba into the northern steppes; Tuoba Shiyiqian was killed by his son.
In 386, Tuoba Shiyiqian's grandsonTuoba Gui revived the kingdom, which he renamed Wei; it is known to historians as the Northern Wei. From near Hohhot, Tuoba Gui expanded southward, capturingShanxi and Hebei from the Former Yan and Henan from theLiu Song dynasty. In 398, he moved the capital to Pingcheng (modern dayDatong) and declared himself the Emperor Daowu. In 423, Tuoba Gui's grandsonTuoba Tao took the throne as Emperor Taiwu and began the quest to unify the North. Under his leadership, the Northern Wei subdued theRouran nomads to the north and began the conquest of Shaanxi, Ningxia, and Gansu. In 427, he captured the Xia capital,Tongwancheng in modern-dayJingbian County, Shaanxi.
The Xia underHelian Ding moved toPingliang, Gansu and conquered the Western Qin at Jincheng (modern dayLanzhou) in 431. Helian Ding sought an alliance with the Liu Song dynasty but was driven further west by the Northern Wei. Helian Ding wanted to invade the Northern Liang but was captured in a raid by theTuyuhun nomads and executed by the Northern Wei. In 436, the Tuoba Tao, as Emperor Taiwu, led an expedition against the Northern Yan. Feng Hong, the younger brother of Feng Ba, fled toGoguryeo, where he was killed. The last ruler of the Northern Liang,Juqu Mujian, surrendered in 439, completing the Northern Wei's unification of northern China and marking the end of the Sixteen Kingdoms period. The Tuobas were eventuallySinicized, changing their name to Yuan, and held northern China through the 550s.
Chinese history then entered theNorthern and Southern Dynasties period as parallel series of dynasties in the North and South co-existed until theSui dynasty united the country in 589.
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| Chronology of the Sixteen Kingdoms with Ethnicity of Founders | ||||||||||||
| Xianbei Xiongnu Jie Di Qiang Dingling Han Chinese | ||||||||||||
| 303 | Jin Dynasty's rule over northern China and Sichuan begins to break down in 304 | WESTERN JIN DYNASTY* 266-317 | ||||||||||
| 304 | Cheng-Han 304-47 | Han-Zhao 304-29 | ||||||||||
| 314 | ||||||||||||
| 315 | Dai* 315-76 | |||||||||||
| 317 | ||||||||||||
| 318 | Former Liang 318-76 | EASTERN JIN DYNASTY* 318-420 | ||||||||||
| 319 | Later Zhao 319-51 | |||||||||||
| 329 | ||||||||||||
| 330 | ||||||||||||
| 337 | Former Yan 337-70 | |||||||||||
| 347 | ||||||||||||
| 350 | Ran Wei* 350-52 | |||||||||||
| 351 | Former Qin 351-94 | |||||||||||
| 352 | ||||||||||||
| 353 | ||||||||||||
| 370 | ||||||||||||
| 376 | ||||||||||||
| 377 | From 376 to 383,Former Qin briefly unites northern China | |||||||||||
| 384 | NORTHERN WEI DYNASTY* 386-534 | Later Qin 384-417 | Western Yan* 384-94 | Later Yan 384-409 | ||||||||
| 385 | Western Qin 385-400 | |||||||||||
| 386 | Later Liang 386-403 | |||||||||||
| 388 | Zhai Wei* 388-92 | |||||||||||
| 392 | ||||||||||||
| 394 | ||||||||||||
| 397 | Southern Liang 397-414 | Northern Liang 397-439 | ||||||||||
| 398 | Southern Yan 398-410 | |||||||||||
| 400 | Western Liang 400-21 | |||||||||||
| 403 | ||||||||||||
| 404 | ||||||||||||
| 407 | Xia 407-31 | |||||||||||
| 409 | Western Qin resurrected 409-31 | Northern Yan 409-36 | ||||||||||
| 410 | ||||||||||||
| 414 | ||||||||||||
| 417 | ||||||||||||
| 420 | LIU SONG DYNASTY* 420-79 | |||||||||||
| 421 | ||||||||||||
| 431 | ||||||||||||
| 436 | ||||||||||||
| 439 | ||||||||||||
| 440 | In 439, theNorthern Wei reunites northern China | |||||||||||
| asterisk (*) denotes kingdoms not counted among the sixteen in theSpring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms bold denotes major kingdoms among the sixteen with large jurisdiction and their rulers elevated themselves as emperors | ||||||||||||
TheGoguryeo kingdom was a powerful and influential state in northern Korea and parts of northeastern China at the beginning of the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Goguryeo was attacked by the MurongXianbei numerous times, and in 342 PrinceMurong Huang ofFormer Yan captured the Goguryeo capitalHwando (Wandu in Chinese). Under the powerful and dynamic leadership of feudal kings, Goguryeo during the reign ofGwanggaeto the Great successfully invaded the kingdoms ofBaekje,Silla, andDongbuyeo. Riding its success, Goguryeo campaigned against theLater Yan, obtaining theLiao River region. KingMurong Xi of Later Yan twice launched retaliatory attacks to reclaim the Liao River watershed territory, but was only partially successful. At Northern Yan's destruction by theNorthern Wei, Yan kingFeng Hong fled to Goguryeo to seek asylum. Although granted asylum, Hong was said to have acted as if he was still king, issuing orders and demanding respect, and was executed by KingJangsu of Goguryeo.
TheYuwen Xianbei groupKumo Xi, who lived north ofYouzhou, and theKhitan began increasing in strength. In 414, the Kumo Xi tribes sent a trade caravan toNorthern Yan, then joined with the Khitan in declaring allegiance to Northern Yan, and then to Northern Wei after its destruction of Northern Yan. Thus, the Northern Wei (essentially theTuoba Xianbei), heldde facto rule over the entireMongolian Plateau and the Liao River region.
In theWestern Regions (modernXinjiang) of the former Han Empire lay the kingdoms ofShanshan,Qiuzi,Yutian, Dongshi, andShule. These kingdoms were often controlled or influenced by the various Liang kingdoms that existed during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. TheFormer Liang organized Gaochang Commandery (Chinese:高昌郡) and Tiandi County (Chinese:闐地縣) in the west, both under the administration of the Gaochang Governor. Day-to-day administration was run out of several forts: Western Regions Chief Clerk, Wu and Ji Colonel, and Jade Gate Commissioner of the Army. Other Liangzhou states generally followed this administrative system. In 382, the Former Qin rulerFu Jian sent GeneralLü Guang on a military expedition to theDayuan kingdom and promoted him to Protector General of the western border regions. After Qin collapsed and Lü Guang founded the Later Liang, the western border forts and the Shanshan kingdom all became parts of or vassals to the Later Liang.
Several rulers of the northern kingdoms patronizedBuddhism which spread across northern China during the Sixteen Kingdoms and flourished during the subsequent Northern Dynasties. The Later Zhao was one of the earliest to provide Buddhism with state recognition, with theKuchean monk,Fotu Cheng occupying a high and privileged position within the imperial court.
The Former Qin ruler Fu Jian was a strong patron of Buddhist scholarship. After capturingXiangyang in 379, he invited the monkDao An toChang'an to catalogue Buddhist scriptures. When the teachings of the famed Kuchean monk,Kumārajīva, reached Chang'an, Dao An advised Fu Jian to invite the Kumārajīva. In 382, Fu Jian sent general Lü Guang to conquer theWestern Regions (Tarim Basin) and bring Kumārajīva to Chang'an.Lü Guang captured Kucha and seized Kumārajīva, but the Former Qin kingdom collapsed after the Battle of Feishui in 383. Lü Guang founded the Later Liang and held Kumārajīva captive in western Gansu for 18 years. In 401, the Later Qin ruler,Yao Xing conquered the Former Liang and Kumārajīva was able to settle in Chang'an and become one of the most influential translators of Buddhist sutras into Chinese.
The earliest grottoes in theMogao Caves ofDunhuang were carved in the Former Liang. Work on theMaijishan Grottoes began during the Later Qin. TheBingling Grottoes were started during the Western Qin. Numerous other grottoes were built in theHexi Corridor under the Northern Liang.
| Preceded by | Dynasties in Chinese history 304–439 | Succeeded by |
