Imperial China was a major regional power in Eastern Asia and exerted influence ontributary states and neighboring states, including Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.[a] These interactions brought ideological and cultural influences rooted inConfucianism,Buddhism, andTaoism. The four cultures were ruled by their respective emperors under similar imperial systems.Chinese inventions influenced, and were in turn influenced by, innovations of the other cultures in governance, philosophy, science, and the arts.[14][15][16]Literary Chinese became the writtenlingua franca for bureaucracy and communications,[17] andChinese characters became locally adapted askanji in Japan,hanja in Korea, andchữ Hán in Vietnam.[18][19]
In late classical history, the literary importance of classical Chinese diminished as Japan, Korea, and Vietnam each adopted their own writing systems. Japan developed thekatakana andhiragana scripts, Korea createdhangul, and Vietnam developedchữ Nôm (now rarely used in lieu of the modern Latin-basedVietnamese alphabet).[20][21] Classical literature written in Chinese characters nonetheless remains an important legacy of Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese cultures.[22] In the 21st century, ideological and cultural influences of Taoism, Confucianism and Buddhism remain visible inhigh culture and social doctrines.
Ancient China was one of thecradles of civilization, with the emergent cultures that arose from the migration ofHan settlers from theYellow River generally regarded as the origin of the East Asian world.[23]
Japanese historianNishijima Sadao [ja] (1919–1998), professor emeritus at theUniversity of Tokyo, coined the termTōa bunka-ken (東亜文化圏, 'East Asian Cultural Sphere') to refer to an East Asian cultural sphere distinct from the cultures of the West. According to Nishijima, this cultural sphere—which includes China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam—shared the philosophy ofConfucianism, the religion ofBuddhism, and similar political and social structures stemming from a background of historicalClassical Chinese scholars.[5] It has also been informally referred to as the "chopsticks sphere" due to perceived native use of these utensils across the region.[24][25]
Unlike with the other languages of the Sinosphere, the corresponding Vietnamese cognatekhuyên圈 is not used to mean 'sphere' or 'area'.[b] Instead,vùng 'region', 'area' is used. The Chinese東亞文化圈 is translated in Vietnamese asVùng văn hóa Á Đông塳文化亞東.
In theRyukyuan languages,圏ちんchin is not used to mean 'sphere', 'area', or 'domain' and only appears inkammun texts written by Ryukyuans. Instead,世yu is used to mean 'world' or 'sphere'. As such,漢字文化圏 and東亜文化圏 would be translated as漢字一型ぬ世kanjii tiigata nu yu and東亜一型ぬ世too-a tiigata nu yu respectively.
Victor H. Mair discussed the origins of these 'culture sphere' terms.[27]The Chinesewénhuà quān (文化圈) dates to a 1941 translation for the German termKulturkreis, ('culture circle, field'), which the Austrian ethnologistsFritz Graebner andWilhelm Schmidt proposed. Japanese historianNishijima Sadao [ja] coined the expressionsKanji bunka ken (漢字文化圏, 'Chinese-character culture sphere') andChuka bunka ken (中華文化圏, 'Chinese culture sphere'), which China later re-borrowed asloanwords.The Sinosphere may be taken to be synonymous toAncient China and its descendant civilizations as well as the "Far Eastern civilizations" (the Mainland and the Japanese ones). In the 1930s inA Study of History, the Sinosphere along with theWestern, Islamic, Eastern Orthodox, Indic, etc. civilizations is presented as among the major "units of study".[28]
British historianArnold J. Toynbee listed the Far Eastern civilization as one of the main civilizations outlined in his bookA Study of History. He included Japan and Korea in his definition of "Far Eastern civilization" and proposed that they grew out of the "Sinic civilization" that originated in the Yellow River basin.[29] Toynbee compared the relationship between the Sinic and Far Eastern civilization with that of the Hellenic and Western civilizations, which had an "apparentation-affiliation".[30]
Americansinologist and historianEdwin O. Reischauer also grouped China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam into a cultural sphere that he called the "Sinic world", a group of centralized states that share a Confucian ethical philosophy. Reischauer states that this culture originated in northern China, comparing the relationship between northern China and East Asia to that ofGreco-Roman civilization and Europe. The elites of East Asia were tied together through a common written language based on Chinese characters, much in the way that Latin had functioned in Europe.[31]
American political scientistSamuel P. Huntington considered the Sinic world as one of many civilizations in his bookThe Clash of Civilizations. He notes that "all scholars recognize the existence of either a single distinct Chinese civilization dating back to at least 1500 B.C. and perhaps a thousand years earlier, or of two Chinese civilizations, one succeeding the other, in the early centuries of the Christian epoch",[32] Huntington's Sinic civilization includes China, North Korea, South Korea, Vietnam, and Chinese communities in Southeast Asia.[33] Of the many civilizations that Huntington discusses, the Sinic world is the only one that is based on a cultural, rather than religious, identity.[34] Huntington's theory was that in a post-Cold War world, humanity "[identifies] with cultural groups: tribes, ethnic groups, religious communities [and] at the broadest level, civilizations".[35][36] Yet, Huntington considered Japan as a distinct civilization.[37]
Imperial City, Huế, Vietnam. Chinese architecture has had a major influence on the East Asian architectural styles of Vietnam, Korea, and Japan.Great Wave off Kanagawa, one of the most famous Japanese woodblock prints
The cuisine of East Asia shares many of the same ingredients and techniques.Chopsticks are used as an eating utensil in all of the core East Asian countries.[40] The use of soy sauce, which is made from fermenting soybeans, is also widespread in the region.[41]
Rice is the staple food in all of East Asia and is a major focus offood security.[42] People who have no rice are often seen as having no food. Moreover, in East Asian countries such as Japan (御飯;gohan), Korea (밥;bap), and Vietnam (cơm; 𩚵 or 粓), the word for "cooked rice" can embody the meaning of food in general.[40]
Dance: Thelion dance is a form of traditional dance inChinese culture and other East Asian countries, in which performers mimic a lion's movements in a lion costume to bring good luck and fortune. Aside from China, versions of the lion dance are found in Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Tibet, and Taiwan. Lion dances are usually performed duringLunar New Year celebrations.
New Year: China (Zhōngguó Xīn Nián), Korea (Seollal), Vietnam (Tết Nguyên Đán), Japan (Koshōgatsu), and Taiwan traditionally observe the same Lunar New Year. However, Japan has moved its New Year (Shōgatsu) to fit theWestern New Year since theMeiji Restoration.[citation needed] Although mainland Japan may not celebrate the Lunar New Year anymore, there are some indigenous minority ethnic groups in Japan that still do, such as theOkinawan/Ryukyuan people. Okinawa has traditionally observed the Lunar New Year because of heavy Chinese influence in its past. Festivities nowadays are not as elaborate as the Western new year, but Okinawans still celebrate and partake in many traditions for Lunar New Year.[44]
East Asian literary culture is based on the use ofLiterary Chinese, which became the medium of scholarship and government across the region. Although each of these countries developed vernacular writing systems and used them for popular literature, they continued to use Chinese for all formal writing until it was swept away by rising nationalism around the end of the 19th century.[45]
Throughout East Asia, Literary Chinese was the language of administration and scholarship. Although Vietnam, Korea, and Japan each developed writing systems for their languages, these were limited to popular literature. Chinese remained the medium of formal writing until it was displaced by vernacular writing in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[46] Though they did not use Chinese for spoken communication, each country had its tradition of reading texts aloud, the so-calledSino-Xenic pronunciations, which provide clues to the pronunciation ofMiddle Chinese. Chinese words with these pronunciations were also borrowed extensively into the local vernaculars and today comprise over half their vocabularies.[47]Vernacular or standard Chinese encompassingvarieties of Chinese also developed in contrast to the use of Literary Chinese.
Books in Literary Chinese were widely distributed. By the 7th century and possibly earlier,woodblock printing had been developed in China. At first, it was used only to copy Buddhist scriptures, but later secular works were also printed. By the 13th century, metalmovable type was used by government printers in Korea but seems to have not been extensively used in China, Vietnam, or Japan. At the same time, manuscript reproduction remained important until the late 19th century.[48]
Taoism has had an influence on countries throughout the Sinosphere. The Taoist school of thought was created in China from the teachings ofLao Tse. It follows the search for thetao, a concept that is equivalent to a path or course and represents the cosmic force that creates the universe and all things.
According to this belief, the wisdom of thetao is the only source of the universe and must be a natural path of life events that everyone should follow. Thus, the adherents of Taoism follow the search fortao, which means path and represents the strength of the universe.
The most important text in Taoism, theTao Te Ching ("Book of the Way and Virtue", c. 300 BC), declares that thetao is the "source" of the universe, thus considered a creative principle, but not as a deity. Nature manifests itself spontaneously, without a higher intention, and it is up to humans to integrate, through "non-action" (wu wei) and spontaneity (zi ran), to its flow and rhythms, to achieve happiness and a long life.
Taoism is a combination of teachings from various sources, manifesting itself as a system that can be philosophical, religious, or ethical. The tradition can also be presented as a worldview and a way of life.[51]
Buddhist philosophy is guided by the teachings of the Buddha, which lead the individual toenlightenment through meditative practices, mindfulness, and reflection on their daily actions. The belief is that physical and spiritual awareness leads to a state of enlightenment callednirvana, which, according to Buddha, is the highest state of meditation. In this state the individual finds peace and tranquility above the oscillations of thoughts and emotions and is rid of the inherent suffering of the physical world.[52]
Buddhism in the Sinosphere orEast Asian Buddhism is of or derived from theMahayana Buddhism sect, which is seen to be intertwined withinTaoism andConfucianism as well.[53] It advocates for altruism and compassion, as well as understanding and escaping fromsuffering in relation tokarma.[54]Vegetarianism orveganism is also present for moremonastic or devout Buddhists of this sect, or even among lay Buddhists, as it leads to compassion for all living, sentient beings.[55][56][57]
The countries of China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam share a Confucian philosophical worldview.[31] Confucianism is ahumanistic[58] philosophy that believes that human beings are teachable, improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavor, especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. Confucianism focuses on the cultivation of virtue and maintenance of ethics, the most basic of which are:[59]
rén (仁): an obligation ofaltruism and humaneness for other individuals
yì (义/義): the upholding of righteousness and the moral disposition to do good
lǐ (礼/禮): a system of norms and propriety that determines how a person should properly act in everyday life
Mid-Imperial Chinese philosophy is primarily defined by the development ofneo-Confucianism. During theTang dynasty, Buddhism fromNepal also became a prominent philosophical and religious discipline. Neo-Confucianism has its origins in the Tang dynasty; the Confucianist scholarHan Yu is seen as a forebear of the neo-Confucianists of the Song dynasty.[60] The Song dynasty philosopherZhou Dunyi is seen as the first true "pioneer" of neo-Confucianism, using Taoist metaphysics as a framework for his ethical philosophy.[61]
In Japan, of the minority that are Christian, 60% were Protestant and the rest were Roman Catholic.[67]
In places such asSingapore with a Chinese majority, but may also speak English as a first language, Christianity is becoming more popular, with the most popular being Protestant branches, followed byCatholicism.[68][69]
On the other hand, no specific religious affiliation may also be practiced as well, and are often the most cited in several aforementioned countries. However, regardless of religious affiliations, most in the Sinosphere are entwined with traces of Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism, or native religions and philosophies.
Numbers in Chinese and Sinoxenic languagesTheUniversal Declaration of Human Rights in CJKV languages. Shared vocabulary is coloured. From left to right, Vietnamese (Tiếng Việt; 㗂越) using the obsoleteChữ Nôm script, Korean (한국어; Han'gugeo; 韓國語), Japanese (日本語; Nihongo; にほんご), and Chinese (中文; Zhōngwén; ㄓㄨㄥ ㄨㄣˊ).
The following language families are found in and around the East Asian cultural sphere. Some have historically contributed to the vocabulary or development of Sinitic languages, and others have been influenced to some degree by them. Only some of these languages are highly indebted toLiterary Chinese and thus relevant to the East Asian cultural sphere.
Turkic: spoken mainly in China, Russia, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Iran, Cyprus, and Turkey. Major Turkic languages includeKazakh,Kyrgyz,Uyghur,Tuvan, andAltai.[74][75][76]
Austroasiatic: spoken mainly in Vietnam, and Cambodia. Major Austroasiatic languages includeVietnamese andKhmer.
Kra-Dai: spoken mainly in Thailand, Laos, and parts of southern China. Major Kra-Dai languages includeZhuang,Thai, andLao.
Ainu: spoken mainly in Japan. The only surviving Ainu language isHokkaido Ainu.
Core languages of the East Asian cultural sphere are predominantly Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese, and their respective variants. These are well-documented to have historically used Chinese characters, with Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese each having roughly 60% of their vocabulary derived from Chinese.[77][78][79] There is a small set of minor languages that are comparable to the core East Asian languages, such asZhuang andHmong-Mien. They are often overlooked, since neither have their own country or heavily export their culture, but Zhuang has been written inHanzi-inspired characters calledSawndip for over 1,000 years. Hmong, while having supposedly lacked a writing system until modern history, is also suggested to have a similar percentage of Chinese loans to the coreCJKV languages.[80]
Due to the common usage of Chinese characters across East Asian nations, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese people traditionally can engage in written communication usingLiterary Chinese without knowing other people's spoken language, calledBrushtalk.[81]
As a result, Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese are also deemedSino-Xenic languages that are highly influenced by ancient forms of Literary Chinese.[82][83]
Taiwan, and historically mainland China. Used to aid in the learning of Hanzi, especially reading and writing, in elementary schools. On the mainland it is used only in theXiandai Hanyu Cidian.
* Official usage historically. Currently used unofficially.
Chinese characters are considered the common culture that unifies the languages and cultures of many East Asian nations. Historically, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam have used Chinese characters. Today, they are mainly used in China, Japan, and South Korea, albeit in different forms.
Korea used to write inhanja but has invented an alphabetic system calledhangul that is nowadays the majority script. However, hanja is a required subject in South Korea. Most names are also written in hanja. Hanja is also studied and used in academia, newspapers, and law—areas where a lot of scholarly terms andSino-Korean loanwords are used and necessary to distinguish between otherwise ambiguous homonyms.
Vietnam used to write inchữ Hán (Chinese characters) inClassical Chinese texts (Hán văn). In the 8th century, they began inventing many of their ownchữ Nôm characters. Since French colonization, they have switched to using a modified version of the Latin alphabet calledchữ Quốc ngữ. However, Chinese characters still hold a special place in these cultures, as their history and literature have been greatly influenced by them. In Vietnam (and North Korea), chữ Hán can be seen in temples, cemeteries, and monuments as well as serving as decorative motifs in art and design.
Zhuang people are similar to the Vietnamese in that they used to write in Sawgun (Chinese characters) and have invented many of their own characters, calledSawndip. Sawndip is still used informally and in traditional settings, but in 1957, China introduced an alphabetical script for the language, which is what it officially promotes.[85]
The business cultures of East Asia are heavily influenced by Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. Japan often features hierarchically organizedcompanies, andJapanese work environments place a high value oninterpersonal relationships.[86] A leader of a Japanese company is typically valued on their ability to maintain social harmony, and to unify or bring together their employees, rather than simply being the top decision maker.[87][88]
Korean businesses, adhering to Confucian values, are structured around apatriarchal family governed byfilial piety (孝順) between management and a company's employees, where knowing one's place within the hierarchy, and showing respect for a person's age and status, are very important in Korean society. It is not uncommon for people in a Korean office to refer to others as their seniors (seonbae), or their juniors (hubae). And usually positions within a company is reflective of a person's age, and juniors tend to listen to their seniors without pause.[89] Koreans place value on maintaining a social harmonious environment that allows a worker's "kibun" (their mood or emotional feelings) to remain balanced.[81]
Maintaining face is usually how business and social relationships work in East Asia, whereas aggressively patronising others, or criticising them publicly in front of others, tend to be the ways to lose business relationships.[88][90] In Chinese business culture, there is a high value on nurturing relationships using the social concept of "guanxi" which refers to a state of having personal trust and a solid relationship with someone, and can involve exchanging favours and have moral obligations to one another.[91][92]
In Vietnamese culture, the culture tends to be hierarchical by age and seniority, and Vietnamese prefer to work with those who they trust, extending this to business relations that often are maintained between peers and relatives. Women have an important role in Vietnamese culture (owing to their historical status assoldiers before) and maintaining face is highly important. Interpersonal relationships are also highly valued. Anger or displaying temper will reduce trust and Vietnamese business people may take spoken word as fact. When there are disruptions in harmony, Vietnamese may use silence as a way of allowing any tension to simmer down.[93][94]
Common factors across Sinosphere tends to place great emphasis and respect towards traits of humility and conformity.[95][96][97][98]
During theIndustrial Revolution, East Asia modernized and became an area of economic power, starting with theMeiji Restoration in the late 19th century, when Japan rapidly transformed itself into the only industrial power outside the North Atlantic area.[99]
Hong Kong's successful postwar economy led to the territory's categorization as one of theFour Asian Tigers, developing strong textile and manufacturing industries.[100] South Korea followed a similar route, developing its textile industry.[100] After theKorean War, theUS military occupation of the country following the end of World War II, and the ultimate division of the peninsula,South Korea experienced what has become known as theMiracle on the Han River, with the rise ofchaebols like Samsung, LG, etc. strongly driving its economy, and as of 2023, has the 12th largest economy in the world by nominal GDP.[101][102]
Since the 1990s,Japanese growth has stagnated, while currently remaining the world's 3rd largest economy by nominal GDP. Presently, higher growth in the region has been experienced by China and theTiger Cub Economies of Southeast Asia, particularly Vietnam.[103][104][105][106]
ASEAN nations, of whichVietnam is a part of.Singapore, one of the most successful Southeast Asian states, may also be considered as Sinosphere in some circumstances (due to its majorityoverseas Chinese population).
Up until the early 2010s, Vietnamese trade was heavily dependent on China. Most Chinese-Vietnamese people are from Cantonese background, and can speak Cantonese and Vietnamese, which share many linguistic similarities.[107] Vietnam, one of theNext Eleven countries as of 2005[update], is regarded as a rising economicpower in Southeast Asia.[108]
Although Greater China, Japan, and Korea all have extensive links with the rest ofASEAN,Vietnam is the only one in the Sinosphere that is formally part of ASEAN as aSoutheast Asian country. Singapore, a highly developed economy, is also a part of ASEAN with a population that is significantlyoverseas Chinese.China's andJapan's economies are respectively the world'ssecond and third-largest economies by nominal GDP, and both are highly influential on the world's tapestry in terms of cultural exportation. South Korea was the 13th largest in 2022 by nominal GDP and has been highly influential as well, with the popularity of theKorean wave since the 1990s. North Korea was the 107th largest, and Vietnam the 35th largest by nominal GDP in 2023.
Mutual relations stem from hundreds to thousands of years of history between each state, originating from the advent of the spread of Classical Chinese writing, conquest, or from trade and cultural flow. Although there were long historical connections between each side, instances of racism or xenophobia towards the other stemming from deep-rooted historical, economic, political or regional differences has also been a major concern.
Additionally, besides mutual relations, various forms of inheritance of Chinese civilisation or "Little China" ideologies have surfaced with Vietnam, Japan, Korea, (the use of 中國 in self-reference) in various situations, conferring the "Chinese" label.
Korea and Japan have had extensive links in terms of culture, trade, political contact and military confrontations. Thehistory of Japan–Korea relations extends for over 15 centuries, with many ideas from mainland Asia flowing into Japan via Korea in historical times.[111] Although geographically close, the two countries are culturally distinct from one another and may harbor contrasting military and historical viewpoints, where relations can turn fraught, especially in the context of Japanese colonization.[112][113][114]
Likewise, Vietnam and China have had relations since 111 BC when theHan dynasty conquered parts of northern Vietnam, as well as northern Korea in 109 BC, although Chinese influences began before then as well. Chinese rule and influence continued to impactVietnam andKorea.[115] Vietnam and China's relations are linked with many cultural and philosophical thoughts emanating from China transferring to Vietnam, as well as many confrontations between the two. Although currently politically similar, relations can oftentimes become fraught and unsound as well.[116][117][118]
The variousBaiyue (Bách Việt in Vietnamese, theHundred Yue's), were vaguely but historically connected to southern Chinese and Vietnamese. In the past "粵" (Yue,Viet,Cantonese) was interchangeable with the homophonous character that today refers specifically to the Vietnamese [越] (Yue,Viet,Vietnamese).Cantonese scholars looked through earlier Chinese sources to find historical information about the Việt/Yue, be it recorded with [粵] or [越].[119]
Japan has long been influenced by China for around 2 millennia and emulated many cultural and philosophical thought, with many Japanese undertaking studies that came from China or via Korea.[111] Culture, trade, and military confrontation has been a major focal point between the two as well and relations can become very fraught.[120]
Vietnam and Korea had semi-official encounters when both countries' envoys met in China from the 16th to 19th century.[121][122] Despite the geographical distance, the countries share many parallels such as colonial rule, and historical or current political division.[122] South Korea was involved in the controversial Vietnam War with South Vietnam as well.[123] Although relations appear courteous, tensions on the Korean peninsula prevent any major relations truly forming without angering the other political side,[124] with Vietnam ultimately used as neutral ground for a North Korean-US summit.[125][126]
Japan's links with Vietnam and the rest of Southeast Asia was mainly through maritime trade stemming from the 16th century.[127] Japan's relations with Vietnam went further back into the 8th century via China.[128][129] Although some residual grievances of Japan's colonizing past in Asia may remain, as well as existing political differences, the relation has mostly been of mutualism.[130][131] However, instances of mistreatment, such as abuse towards Vietnamese laborers in Japan, has surfaced.[132][133]
Korea and China relations are extensive and several millennia old with much cultural trade and thought transferring into Korea from China, with parts of Korea having also been subsumed by Chinese rule since 109 BC, as well as partaking in several military confrontations.[115] Much of the history between Korea and China focused on Northeast Asia, also playing a role in transmitting knowledge to Japan.[111] Along with the long history between the two, relations between them may also become fraught.[134]
^Vietnam and Korea remained tributary states of China for much of their histories, while Japan only submitted fully to Chineseregional hegemony during theMuromachi period.[12][13]
^In Vietnamese,khuyên圈 has the meaning of 'earring'. The sense of the word as meaning 'sphere' is only found in Literary Chinese texts.
^abWang Hui, "'Modernity and 'Asia' in the Study of Chinese History," in Eckhardt Fuchs, Benedikt Stuchtey, eds.,Across cultural borders: historiography in global perspective[1] (Rowman & Littlefield, 2002ISBN978-0-7425-1768-4), p. 322.
^Kang, David C. (2012).East Asia before the West: five centuries of trade and tribute (Paperback ed.). New York: Columbia University Press.ISBN978-0-231-15319-5.
^Howe, Christopher. The Origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy: Development and Technology in Asia. p. 337
^Qian, Nanxiu; Smith, Richard J.; Zhang, Bowei, eds. (2020).Rethinking the Sinosphere: Poetics, Aesthetics, and Identity Formation. Cambria.ISBN978-1-604-97990-9.
^Qian, Nanxiu; Smith, Richard J.; Zhang, Bowei, eds. (2020).Reexamining the Sinosphere: Cultural Transmissions and Transformations in East Asia. Cambria.ISBN978-1-604-97987-9.
Jeffrey L. Richey (2013).Confucius in East Asia: Confucianism's History in China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Association for Asian Studies.ISBN978-0-924-30473-6.
Ching-I Tu, ed. (2010).East Asian Confucianism: Interactions and Innovations. Rutgers University.ISBN978-0-615-38932-5.
Huang, Chun-chieh, ed. (2015).East Asian Confucianisms: Texts in Contexts. National Taiwan University Press.ISBN978-3-847-10408-7.
^See the "family tree" of Toynbee's "civilizations" in any edition of Toynbee's work, or e.g. as Fig.1 on p.16 of:The Rhythms of History: A Universal Theory of Civilizations, By Stephen Blaha. Pingree-Hill Publishing, 2002.ISBN0-9720795-7-2.
^Kim, Kwang-Ok (1 February 2015).Re-Orienting Cuisine : East Asian Foodways in the Twenty-First Century. Berghahn Books, Incorporated. p. 14.ISBN9781782385639.
^"Given Japan's strong tradition of Chinese textual scholarship, encouraged further by visits by eminent Chinese scholars since the early 20th century, Japan has been one of the birthplaces of modern sinology outside China" Early China – A Social and Cultural History, page 11. Cambridge University Press.
^Hansen, Chad (2024),"Daoism", in Zalta, Edward N.; Nodelman, Uri (eds.),The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2024 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved20 September 2024
^"Buddhism".education.nationalgeographic.org. Retrieved13 November 2023.
^Huang, Siu-Chi (1999).Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods. Westport, Connecticut:Greenwood Publishing. p. 5.ISBN9780313264498.
^Zhou, Minglang (24 October 2012).Multilingualism in China : the politics of writing reforms for minority languages, 1949–2002. Berlin.ISBN9783110924596.OCLC868954061.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^abCompare:J. James W. Harrington; Barney Warf (1995).Industrial Location: Principles, Practice, and Policy. Routledge. p. 199.ISBN978-0-415-10479-1.As the textile industry began to abandon places with high labor costs in the western industrialized world, it began to sprout up in a variety of Third World locations, in particular the famous 'Four Tiger' nations of East Asia: South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. Textiles were particularly important in the early industrialization of South Korea, while garment production was more significant to Hong Kong.
^Chen, Xi (2020). "Study on the Value Identity of Chinese and Vietnamese Culture of Song Genius".Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research.469:257–263.
^Youn, Dae-Yong (2014). "The Loss of Vietnam: Korean Views of Vietnam in the Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries".Journal of Vietnamese Studies.9 (1):62–95.doi:10.1525/vs.2014.9.1.62.JSTOR10.1525/vs.2014.9.1.62.
^Owen, Norman G., Chandler, David.The Emergence of Modern Southeast Asia (p. 107). [University of Hawaiʻi Press University of Hawaiʻi Press], 2005.ISBN0-8248-2841-0
Ankerl, Guy (2000).Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Global communication without universal civilization. Vol. 1. Geneva, Switzerland: INU Press.ISBN978-2-88155-004-1.
Chan, Wing-tsit (1963),A Sourcebook of Chinese Philosophy, Princeton: Princeton University Press,ISBN978-0-691-07137-4
Denecke, Wiebke; Nguyen, Nam (2017). "Shared Literary Heritage in the East Asian Sinographic Sphere". In Denecke, Wiebke; Li, Wai-Yee; Tian, Xiaofei (eds.).The Oxford Handbook of Classical Chinese Literature. pp. 510–532.doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199356591.013.33.
Joshua Fogel, "The Sinic World," inAinslie Thomas Embree,Carol Gluck, ed.,Asia in Western and World History a Guide for Teaching. (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, Columbia Project on Asia in the Core Curriculum, 1997).ISBN0585027331. Access may be limited to NetLibrary affiliated libraries.EBSCOhost Login
Fogel, Joshua A. (2009).Articulating the Sinosphere : Sino-Japanese relations in space and time. Edwin O. Reischauer Lectures ([Online-Ausg.] ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0-674-03259-0.
Holcombe, Charles (2011)."Introduction: What is East Asia".A history of East Asia : from the origins of civilization to the twenty-first century (1st published. ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–10.ISBN978-0521731645.
—— (2001).The Genesis of East Asia, 221 B.C.-A.D. 907 ([Online-Ausg.] ed.). Honolulu: Association for Asian Studies and University of Hawai'i Press.ISBN978-0824824150.
Huang, Chun-chieh (2015).East Asian Confucianisms: Texts in Contexts. Taipei and Göttingen, Germany: National Taiwan University Press and Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.ISBN9783847104087.
Lowe, Roy; Yasuhara, Yoshihito (2016). "Higher learning in ancient Korea, Japan and Vietnam: The East Asian cultural sphere and the Imperial Chinese".The Origins of Higher Learning.Routledge.ISBN9781315728551.
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