Cilappatikāram (IPA: ʧiləppət̪ikɑːrəm,lit. "the Tale of an Anklet"),[1] also referred to asSilappathikaram[2] orSilappatikaram,[3] is the earliestTamil epic.[4] It is a poem of 5,730 lines in almost entirelyakaval (aciriyam) meter.[5] The epic is a tragic love story of an ordinary couple,Kaṇṇaki and her husbandKōvalaṉ.[6][7] TheCilappatikāram has more ancient roots in the Tamil bardic tradition, as Kannaki and other characters of the story are mentioned or alluded to in theSangam literature such as in theNaṟṟiṇai and later texts such as theKovalam Katai.[8][9][10] It is attributed to a prince-turned-jain-monkIḷaṅkō Aṭikaḷ, and was probably composed in the 5th century CE[11][12][2][5][13] (although estimates range from 2nd to 6th century CE).
TheCilappatikāram is an ancient literary masterpiece. It is to theTamil culture what theIliad is to theGreek culture, statesR. Parthasarathy.[14] It blends the themes, mythologies and theological values found in the Jain, Buddhist and Hindu religious traditions. It is a Tamil story of love and rejection, happiness and pain, good and evil like all classic epics of the world. Yet unlike other epics that deal with kings and armies caught up with universal questions and existential wars, theCilappatikāram is an epic about an ordinary couple caught up with universal questions and internal, emotional war.[15] TheCilappatikaram legend has been a part of the Tamil oral tradition. The palm-leaf manuscripts of the original epic poem, along with those of the Sangam literature, were rediscovered in monasteries in the second half of the 19th century by UV Swaminatha Aiyar – a pandit and Tamil scholar. After being preserved and copied in temples and monasteries in the form of palm-leaf manuscripts, Aiyar published its first partial edition on paper in 1872, the full edition in 1892. Since then the epic poem has been translated into many languages including English.[16][17][18][19]
TheCilappatikāram is set in a flourishing seaport city of theearly Chola kingdom. Kaṇṇaki and Kōvalaṉ are a newly married couple, in love, and living in bliss.[14] Over time, Kōvalaṉ meets Mātavi (Mādhavi) – a courtesan. He falls for her, leaves Kaṇṇaki and moves in with Mātavi. He spends lavishly on her. Kaṇṇaki is heartbroken, but as the chaste woman, she waits despite her husband's unfaithfulness. During the festival forIndra, the rain god, there is a singing competition.[14] Kōvalaṉ sings a poem about a woman who hurt her lover. Mātavi then sings a song about a man who betrayed his lover. Each interprets the song as a message to the other. Kōvalaṉ feels Mātavi is unfaithful to him and leaves her. Kaṇṇaki is still waiting for him. She takes him back.[14]
Kannagi and Kōvalaṉ leave the city and travel toMadurai, the capital of thePandya kingdom. Kōvalaṉ is penniless and destitute. He confesses his deceit to Kannagi. She forgives him and tells him the hurt his adultery caused her. Then she encourages her husband to rebuild their life together and gives him one of her jeweled anklets to sell to raise starting capital.[14] Kōvalaṉ sells it to a merchant, but the merchant falsely frames him as having stolen the anklet from the queen. The king arrests Kōvalaṉ and then executes him, without the due checks and processes of justice.[14][20] When Kōvalaṉ does not return home, Kannagi goes searching for him. She learns what has happened. She protests the injustice and then proves Kōvalaṉ's innocence by throwing in the court the other jeweled anklet of the pair. The king accepts his folly. Kannagi curses the king and the people of Madurai, tearing off her breast and throwing it at the gathered public. The king dies. The society that had made her suffer, suffers in retribution as the city of Madurai is burnt to the ground because of her curse.[14][20]
In the third section of the epic, gods and goddesses meet Kannagi atCheranadu and she goes to heaven with the godIndra. The KingCheran Chenkuttuvan and royal family of theChera kingdom (Today Kerala) learn about her and resolve to build a temple with Kannagi as the featured goddess. They go to the Himalayas, bring a stone, carve her image, call her goddessPattini, dedicate a temple, order daily prayers, and perform a royal sacrifice.[14]
According to V R Ramachandra Dikshitar, the titleSilappatikāram – also spelledSilappadikaram[21] – is a combination of two words, "silambu" (anklet) and "adikaram" (the story about). It therefore connotes a "story that centers around an anklet".[22] The content and context around that center is elaborate, with Atiyarkkunallar describing it as an epic story told with poetry, music, and drama.[4]
The Tamil tradition attributesCilappatikaram to theIḷaṅkō Aṭikaḷ ("the venerable ascetic prince"), also spelled Ilango Adigal.[24] He is reputed to have been aJain Monk and the brother ofChera kingChenkuttuvan, whose family and rule are described in the Fifth Ten of thePatiṟṟuppattu, a poem of theSangam literature. In it or elsewhere, however, there is no evidence that the famous king had a brother.[25][24]V. Kanakasabhai opined that Ilango was a monk of a nirgrantha sect ofJain.[26] The Sangam poems never mention Ilango Adigal, the epic or the name of any other author for the epic. The Ilango Adigal name appears in a much later datedpatikam (prologue) attached to the poem, and the authenticity of this attribution is doubtful.[24] According to Gananath Obeyesekere, the story of the purportedCilappadikaram author Ilango Adigal as the brother of a famous Chera king "must be later interpolations", something that was a characteristic feature of early literature.[27]
The mythical third section about gods meeting Kannaki after Kovalan's death, in the last Canto, mentions a legend about a prince turned into a monk. This has been conflated as the story of the attributed author as a witness. However, little factual details about the real author(s) or evidence exist.[24] Given the fact that older Tamil texts mention and allude to the Kannaki's tragic love story, states Parthasarathy, the author was possibly just a redactor of theoral tradition and the epic poem was not a product of his creative genius.[24] The author was possibly a Jaina scholar, as in several parts of the epic, the key characters of the epic meet a Jaina monk or nun.[24] The epic's praise of the Vedas, Brahmins, inclusion of temples, Hindu gods and goddesses and ritual worship give the text a cosmopolitan character, and to some scholars' evidence to propose that author was not necessarily a Jaina ascetic.[12][28][29]
According to Ramachandra Dikshitar, the ascetic-prince legend about Ilango Adigal as included in the last canto ofCilappadikaram is odd. In the epic, Ilango Adigal attends a Vedic sacrifice with the Chera king Cenkuttuvan after the king brings back the Himalayan stone to make a statue of Kannaki.[30] If the author Ilango Adigal was a Jain ascetic and given our understanding of Jainism's historic view on the Vedas and Vedic sacrifices, why would he attend a function like the Vedic sacrifice, states Ramachandra Dikshitar.[31] This, and the fact that the epic comfortably praises Shaiva and Vaishnava lifestyle, festivals, gods and goddesses, has led some scholars to propose that author of this epic was a Hindu.[30]
Ilango Adigal has been suggested to be a contemporary ofSattanar, the author ofMaṇimēkalai. However, evidence for such suggestions has been lacking.[32]
In the modern era, some Tamil scholars have linked the Ilango Adigal legend about his being the brother of king Cenkuttuvan, as a means to date this text. A Chera king Cenkuttuvan is tentatively placed in the 100–250 CE, and the traditionalists, therefore, place the text to the same period.[11][12] In 1939, for example, the Tamil literature scholar Ramachandra Dikshitar presented a number of events mentioned within the text and thereby derived that the text was composed about 171 CE.[33][34] According to Dhandayudham, the epic should be dated to between the 3rd and 5th century.[35] Ramachandra Dikshitar analysis that the epic was composed before thePallava dynasty emerged as a major power in the 6th-century is accepted by most scholars, because there is no mention of the highly influential Pallavas in the epic. His chronological estimate of 171 CE forCilappadikaram cannot be far from the real date of composition, states Alain Daniélou – a French Indologist who translated theCilappadikaram in 1965. Daniélou states that the epic – along with the other four Tamil epics – were all composed sometime between the last part of theSangam and the subsequent centuries, that is "3rd to 7th-century".[36]
Other scholars, such asKamil Zvelebil – a Tamil literature and history scholar, state that the legends in the epic itself are a weak foundation for dating the text.[37] A stronger foundation is the linguistics, events and other sociological details in the text when compared to those in other Tamil literature, new words and grammatical forms, and the number of non-Tamil loan words in the text. The Sangam era texts of the 100–250 CE period are strikingly different in style, language structure, the beliefs, the ideologies, and the customs portrayed in theCilappatikāram, which makes the early dating implausible.[37] Further, the epic's style, structure and other details are quite similar to the texts composed centuries later. These point to a much later date. According to Zvelebil, theCilappatikāram that has survived into the modern era "cannot have been composed before the 5th- to 6th-century".[37]
According to other scholars, such as Iyengar, the first two sections of the epic were likely the original epic, and third mythical section after the destruction of Madurai is likely a later extrapolation, an addendum that introduces a mix of Jaina, Hindu and Buddhist stories and practices, including the legend about the ascetic prince. The hero (Kōvalaṉ) is long dead, and the heroine (Kaṇṇaki) follows him shortly thereafter into heaven, as represented in the early verses of the third section. This part adds nothing to the story, is independent, is likely to be of a much later century.[37]
Other scholars, including Zvelebil, state that this need not necessarily be so. The third section covers the third of three major kingdoms of the ancient Tamil region, the first section covered the Cholas and the second the Pandya. Further, states Zvelebil, the deification of Kaṇṇaki keeps her theme active and is consistent with the Tamil and the Indian tradition of merging a legend into its ideas of rebirth and endless existence.[37] The language, and style of the third section is "perfectly homogeneous" with the first two, it does not seem to be the work of multiple authors, and therefore the entire epic should be considered a complete masterpiece.[37][34] Fred Hardy, in contrast, states that some sections have clearly and cleverly been interpolated into the main epic, and these additions may be of 7th- to 8th century.[38] Daniélou concurs that the epic may have been "slightly" reshaped and enlarged in the centuries after the original epic was composed, but the epic as it has survived into the modern age is quite homogeneous and lacks evidence of additions by multiple authors.[39]
Iravatham Mahadevan states that the mention of a weekday (Friday) in the text and the negative portrayal of aPandya king narrows the probable date of composition to between 450 and 550 CE. This is because the concept of weekdays did not exist in India until the 5th century CE, and thePandya dynasty only regained power in 550 CE, thus meaning that Jains could freely criticise them without any threat to their lives.[40]
TheCilappatikaram is divided into threekantams (book, Skt:khanda), which are further subdivided intokatais (cantos, Skt:katha). The threekantams are named after the capitals of the three major early Tamil kingdoms:[41]
Thekatais range between 53 and 272 lines each. In addition to the 25 cantos, the epic has 5 song cycles:[41]
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Canto V ofSilappadikaram
The entire Canto V is devoted to the festival ofIndra, which takes place in the ancient city ofPuhar. The festivities begin at the temple of the white elephant [Airavata, the mount of Indra] and they continue in thetemples of UnbornShiva, ofMurugan [beauteous god of Youth], of nacre white Valliyon [Balarama] brother ofKrishna, of darkVishnu called Nediyon, and of Indra himself with his string of pearls and his victorious parasol.Vedic rituals are performed and stories from thePuranas are told, while temples of the Jains and their charitable institutions can be seen about the city.
TheCilappatikaram is set in a flourishing seaport city of theearly Chola kingdom. Kannaki and Kovalan are a newly married couple, in love, and living in bliss.[14] Over time, Kovalan meets Matavi (Madhavi) – a courtesan. He falls for her, leaves Kannaki and moves in with Matavi. He spends lavishly on her. Kannaki is heartbroken, but as the chaste woman, she waits despite her husband's unfaithfulness. During the festival forIndra, the rain god, there is a singing competition.[14] Kovalan sings a poem about a woman who hurt her lover. Matavi then sings a song about a man who betrayed his lover. Each interprets the song as a message to the other. Kovalan feels Matavi is unfaithful to him and leaves her. Kannaki is still waiting for him. She takes him back.[14]
Kannaki and Kovalan leave the city and travel to Madurai of the Pandya kingdom. Kovalan is penniless and destitute. He confesses his mistakes to Kannaki. She forgives him and tells him the pain his unfaithfulness gave her. Then she encourages her husband to rebuild their life together and gives him one of her jeweled anklets to sell to raise starting capital.[14] Kovalan sells it to a merchant, but the merchant falsely frames him as having stolen the anklet from the queen. The king arrests Kovalan and then executes him, without the due checks and processes of justice.[14][20] When Kovalan does not return home, Kannaki goes searching for him. She learns what has happened. She protests the injustice and then proves Kovalan's innocence by throwing in the court the other jeweled anklet of the pair. The king accepts his mistake. Kannaki curses the king and curses the people of Madurai, tearing off her breast and throwing it at the gathered public, triggering the flames of a citywide inferno. The remorseful king dies in shock. Madurai is burnt to the ground because of her curse.[14][20] The violence of the Kannaki fire kills everyone, except "only Brahmins, good men, cows, truthful women, cripples, old men and children", states Zvelebil.[47]
Kannaki leaves Madurai and heads into the mountainous region of the Chera kingdom. Gods and goddesses meet Kannaki, the king of godsIndra himself comes with his chariot, and Kannaki goes to heaven withIndra. The royal family of the Chera kingdom learns about her, resolves to build a temple with Kannaki as the featured goddess. They go to the Himalayas, bring a stone, carve her image, call her goddessPattini, dedicate a temple, order daily prayers, and perform a royal sacrifice.[14]
The manuscripts of the epic include a prologue calledpatikam. This is likely a later addition to the older epic.[48] It, nevertheless, shows the literary value of the epic to later Tamil generations:
We shall compose a poem, with songs,
To explain these truths: even kings, if they break
The law, have their necks wrung by dharma;
Great men everywhere commend
wife of renowned fame; and karma ever
Manifests itself, and is fulfilled. We shall call the poem
TheCilappatikāram, the epic of the anklet,
Since the anklet brings these truths to light.[49]
Twenty-five cantos of the Cilappatikaram are set in the akaval meter, a meter found in the more ancient TamilSangam literature. It has verses in other meters and contains five songs also in a different meter. These features suggest that the epic was performed in the form of stage drama that mixed recitation of cantos with the singing of songs.[50] The 30 cantos were reciting as monologues.[51]
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The Tamil epic has many references and allusions to the Sanskrit epics and puranic legends. For example, it describes the fate ofPoompuhar suffering the same agony as experienced byAyodhya when Rama leaves for exile to the forest as instructed by his father.[52] TheAycciyarkuravai section (canto 27), makes mention of the Lord who could measure the three worlds, going to the forest with his brother, waging a war against Lanka and destroying it with fire.[52] These references indicate that theRamayana was known to theCilappatikaram audience many centuries before theKamba Ramayanam of the 12th century CE.[52]
The 17th cannot of the epic explains the Beauty and greatness ofLord Vishnu with respect to his forms and Various incarnations. Vishnu was the deity most mentioned in Tamil Sangam literature and is said to be one of the favourite gods of the people who lived in the Sangam time. The epic states that "Vain are the ears which do not hear the glory ofRama who is Vishnu, Vain are the eyes which do not see the dark hued Lord, the great God, the Mayavan Vishnu, Vain is the tongue that will not praise him who triumphed over the deceit of the foolish schemer Kamsa (Krishna), Vain is the tongue which does not say ‘Narayana’.[53]
According to Zvelebil, theCilappatikaram mentions theMahabharata and calls it the "great war", just like the story was familiar to the Sangam era poets too as evidenced in Puram 2 and Akam 233.[4] One of the poets is nicknamed as "The Peruntevanar who sang the Bharatam [Mahabharatam]", once again confirming that the Tamil poets by the timeCilappatikaram was composed were intimately aware of the Sanskrit epics, the literary structure and significance ofMahakavyas genre.[54] To be recognized as an accomplished extraordinary poet, one must compose a greatkavya has been the Tamil scholarly opinion prior to the modern era, states Zvelebil. These were popular and episodes from suchmaha-kavya were performed as a form of dance-drama in public. TheCilappatikaram is a Tamil epic that belongs to the pan-Indiakavya epic tradition.[54] The Tamil tradition and medieval commentators such as Mayilaintar have included theCilappatikaram as one of theaimperunkappiyankal, which literally means "five great kavyas".[55]
According to D. Dennis Hudson – a World Religions and Tamil literature scholar, theCilappatikaram is the earliest and first complete Tamil reference to Pillai (Nila, Nappinnai, Radha), who is described in the epic as the cowherd lover of Krishna.[56] The epic includes abundant stories and allusions to Krishna and his stories, which are also found in ancient Sanskrit Puranas. In the canto where Kannaki is waiting for Kovalan to return after selling her anklet to a Madurai merchant, she is in a village with cowgirls.[56] These cowherd girls enact a dance, where one plays Mayavan (Krishna), another girl plays Tammunon (Balarama), while a third plays Pinnai (Radha). The dance begins with a song listing Krishna's heroic deeds and his fondness for Radha, then they dance where sage Narada plays music. Such scenes where cowgirls imitate Krishna's life story are also found in Sanskrit poems ofHarivamsa andVishnu Purana, both generally dated to be older thanCilappatikaram.[56] The Tamil epic calls portions of it asvāla caritai nāṭaṅkaḷ, which mirrors the phrasebalacarita nataka – dramas about the story of the child [Krishna]" – in the more ancient Sanskritkavyas.[56][note 1] According to the Indologist Friedhelm Hardy, this canto and others in the Tamil epic reflect a culture where "Dravidian, Tamil, Sanskrit, Brahmin, Buddhist, Jain and many other influences" had already fused into a composite whole in the South Indian social consciousness.[58]
According to Zvelebil, theCilappadikaram is the "first literary expression and the first ripe fruit of the Aryan-Dravidian synthesis in Tamilnadu".[59]
In early 20th-century, theCilappadikaram became a rallying basis for some Tamil nationalists based in Sri Lanka and colonial-era Madras Presidency. The epic is considered as the "first consciously national work" and evidence of the fact that the "Tamils had by that time [mid 1st-millennium CE] attained nationhood",[60] or the first expression of a sense of Tamil cultural integrity and Tamil dominance.[55] This view is shared by some modernist Tamil playwrights, movie makers, and politicians. According to Norman Cutler, this theme runs in recent works such as the 1962 re-rendering of theCilappadikaram intoKannakip Puratcikkappiyam by Paratitacan, and the 1967 playCilappatikaram: Natakak Kappiyam byM. Karunanidhi – an influential politician and a former Chief Minister behind theDravida Munnetra Kazhagam andDravidian movement.[55] These versions, some by avowed atheists, have retold theCilappadikaram epic "to propagate their ideas of [Tamil] cultural identity", along with a hostility to "the North, the racially different Aryans, the Brahmins", and the so-called "alien culture", according to Prabha Rani and Vaidyanathan Shivkumar.[61]
The Tamil nationalistic inspiration derived from theCilappadikaram is a selective reading and appropriation of the great epic, according to Cutler.[62] It cherrypicks and brackets some rhetorical and ideological elements from the epic but ignores the rest that make the epic into a complete masterpiece.[61][62] In the third book of the epic, the Tamil king Cenkuttuvan defeats his fellow Tamil kings and then invades and conquers the Deccan and the north Indian kingdoms. Yet, states Cutler, the same book places an "undeniable prestige" for a "rock from the Himalayas", the "river Ganges" and other symbols from the north to honor Kannaki.[62] Similarly, the Pandyan and the Chera king in variouskatais, as well as the three key characters of the epic (Kannaki, Kovalan and Madhavi) in otherkatais of theCilappadikaram pray in Hindu temples dedicated to Shiva, Murugan, Vishnu, Krishna, Balarama, Indra, Korravai (Parvati), Saraswati, Lakshmi, and others.[63] The Tamil kings are described in the epic as performing Vedic sacrifices and rituals, where Agni and Varuna are invoked, and the Vedas are chanted. These and numerous other details in the epic were neither of Dravidian roots nor icons, rather they reflect an acceptance of and reverence for certain shared pan-Indian cultural rituals, symbols and values, what Himalayas and Ganges signify to the Indic culture. The epic rhetorically does present a vision of a Tamil imperium, yet it also "emphatically is not exclusively Tamil", states Cutler.[62][63]
According to V R Ramachandra Dikshitar, the epic provides no evidence of sectarian conflict between the Indian religious traditions.[63] InCilappadikaram, the key characters pray and participate in both Shaiva and Vaishnava rituals, temples and festivals. In addition, they give help and get help from the Jains and the Ajivikas.[63] There are Buddhist references too in theCilappadikaram such as about Mahabodhi, but these are very few – unlike the other Tamil epicMaṇimēkalai. Yet, all these references are embedded in a cordial community, where all share the same ideas and belief inkarma and related premises. The major festivals described in the epic are pan-Indian and these festivals are also found in ancient Sanskrit literature.[63]
U. V. Swaminatha Iyer (1855-1942 CE), a Shaiva Hindu and Tamil scholar, rediscovered palm-leaf manuscripts of the poem, along with those of the Sangam literature, in Hindu monasteries nearKumbakonam. These manuscripts were preserved and copied in temples and monasteries over the centuries, as palm-leaf manuscripts degrade in the tropical climate. This rediscovery in the second half of the 19th-century and the consequent publication broughtCilappatikaram to readers and scholars outside the temples. This helped trigger an interest in ancient Tamil literature. Aiyar published its first partial edition in 1872, the full edition in 1892. Since then, the epic poem has been translated into many languages.[16][17][18]
S Ramanathan (1917-1988 CE) has published articles on the musical aspects of theSilappadikaram.[citation needed]
To some critics,Maṇimēkalai is more interesting thanCilappadikaram, but in terms of literary evaluation, it seems inferior.[64] According to Panicker, there are effusions inCilappadikaram in the form of a song or a dance, which does not go well with western audience as they are assessed to be inspired on the spur of the moment.[65] According to a Calcutta review, the three-epic works on a whole have no plot and no characterization to qualify for an epic genre.[66]
A review byGeorge L. Hart, a professor ofTamil language at theUniversity of California, Berkeley, "the Silappatikaram is to Tamil what the Iliad and Odyssey are to Greek — its importance would be difficult to overstate."[67]
The first English translation ofCilappadikaram was published in 1939 by V R Ramachandra Dikshitar (Oxford University Press).[21] In 1965, an English translation of the epic was published by Alain Daniélou.[68]R. Parthasarathy's English translation was published in 1993 by Columbia University Press and reprinted in 2004 by Penguin Books. Paula Saffire ofButler University state that Parthasarathy's translation is "indispensable" and more suited for scholarly studies due to its accuracy, while Daniélou's translation was more suited to those seeking the epic's spirit and an easier to enjoy poem.[69]
The Parthasarathy translation won the 1996 A.K. Ramanujan Book Prize for Translation.[70]
The epic has been translated intoFrench by the sameAlain Daniélou and RN Desikan in 1961 (before his English translation), into Czech byKamil Zvelebil in 1965, and into Russian byJJ Glazov in 1966.[71]
Veteran Tamil writerJeyamohan rewrote the whole epic into a novel as Kotravai in 2005. The novel having adapted the original plot and characters, it revolves around the ancient South Indian traditions, also trying to fill the gaps in the history using multiple narratives.[citation needed]H. S. Shivaprakash a leading poet and playwright in Kannada has also re-narrated a part from the epic namelyMadurekanda.[citation needed] It has also been re-narrated inHindi by famous Hindi writerAmritlal Nagar in his novel Suhag Ke Nupur which was published in 1960. He had also written a 1.25-hour radio-play on the story which was broadcast onAakashvani in 1952.[citation needed]
There have been multiple movies based on the story of Cilappathikaram and the most famous is the portrayal of Kannagi by actress Kannamba in the 1942 movieKannagi. P. U. Chinnappa played the lead as Kovalan. The movie faithfully follows the story of Cilappathikaram and was a hit when it was released. The moviePoompuhar, penned byM. Karunanidhi is also based on Cilapathikaram.[72] There are multiple dance dramas as well by some of the great exponents of Bharatanatyam in Tamil as most of the verses of Cilappathikaram can be set to music.
Cilappatikaram also occupies much of the screen time in the 15th and 16th episodes of the television seriesBharat Ek Khoj.Pallavi Joshi played the role of Kannagi and Rakesh Dhar played that of Kovalan.
Indian Railways launched a new train named after the poem, theSilambu Express, between Chennai and Manamadurai in 2013.
