Sikh Empire | |
|---|---|
| 1799–1849 | |
| Motto: ਅਕਾਲ ਸਹਾਇ Akāl Sahāi "With God's Grace" | |
| Anthem: ਦੇਗ ਤੇਗ ਫ਼ਤਿਹ Dēg Tēg Fateh "Victory to Charity and Arms" | |
 The Sikh Empirec. 1839, at the time ofRanjit Singh's death | |
| Status | Empire |
| Capital |
|
| Common languages | |
| Religion | |
| Government | Federal monarchy |
| Maharaja | |
• 1801–1839 | Ranjit Singh (first) |
• 1843–1849 | Duleep Singh (last) |
| Regent | |
• 1840–1841 | Chand Kaur |
• 1843–1846 | Jind Kaur |
| Vizier | |
• 1799–1818 | Khushal Singh (first) |
• 1846 | Gulab Singh (last) |
| Historical era | Early modern period |
• Capture of Lahore byRanjit Singh | 7 July 1799 |
• End ofSecond Anglo-Sikh War | 29 March 1849 |
| Area | |
| 1839[5] | 520,000 km2 (200,000 sq mi) |
| Population | |
• 1800s | 12,000,000[6] |
| Currency | Nanak ShahiSikke |
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TheSikh Empire was aregional power based in thePunjab region of theIndian subcontinent.[4] It existed from 1799, whenMaharajaRanjit Singh capturedLahore, to 1849, when it was defeated and conquered by theBritish East India Company following theSecond Anglo-Sikh War. It was forged on the foundations of theKhalsa from a collection of autonomousmisls.[1][7] At its peak in the 19th century, the empire extended fromGilgit andTibet in the north to thedeserts of Sindh in the south and from theKhyber Pass in the west to theSutlej in the east,[8][9] and was divided into eight provinces.[a][10] Religiously diverse, with an estimated population of 4.5 million in 1831 (making it the19th most populous country at the time),[11] it was the last major region of the Indian subcontinent tobe annexed by theBritish Empire.
In 1799, Ranjit Singh ofSukerchakia Misl captured Lahore from the Sikhtriumvirate which had been ruling itsince 1765, and was confirmed on the possession of Lahore by the Durrani ruler,Zaman Shah.[12] He was formally crowned on 12 April 1801 (to coincide withVaisakhi).Sahib Singh Bedi, a descendant ofGuru Nanak, conducted the coronation.[13] By 1813, all the remaining independentmisls had been annexed by Ranjit Singh,[14] and the following years sawprogressive expulsion of theAfghans from Punjab; the Afghan influence east ofIndus ended after thefall of Multan in 1818. In the subsequent decades Durrani Afghans lostKashmir andPeshawar to the Sikhs as well. Ranjit Singh rose to power in a very short period, from a leader of a singlemisl to finally becoming the Maharaja of Punjab. He began to modernise his army, using the latest training as well as weapons andartillery.
After the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1839, the empire was weakened by theBritish East India Company, stoking internal divisions and political mismanagement. Finally, in 1849, the state was dissolved after its defeat in the Second Anglo-Sikh War.
The empire is also referred to as theLahore State, such as in contemporary British maps.[15][16][17] The termLahore Darbar refers to theSikh court at Lahore of the empire's ruling government.[note 2][18] However, the term "Lahore Darbar" gained currency only around the time of Ranjit Singh's death, and was not found in British sources until then.[18] The empire's own Persian chronicles refers to its ruling government as theSarkar Khalsaji.[18]
The foundation of the Sikh Empire can be traced to as early as 1707, the year ofAurangzeb's death and the start of the downfall of theMughal Empire. With the Mughals significantly weakened, the Sikh army, known as theDal Khalsa, a rearrangement of theKhalsa Fauj inaugurated byGuru Gobind Singh, led expeditions against them and theAfghans in the west. This led to a growth of the army which split into different confederacies or semi-independentmisls. Each of these component armies controlled different areas and cities. However, in the period from 1762 to 1799, Sikh commanders of themisls appeared to be coming into their own as independent.[citation needed]
Sikhism began during the conquest ofNorth India byBabur, the founder of theMughal Empire. His grandson,Akbar, supported religious freedom and after visiting thelangar ofGuru Amar Das got a favourable impression of Sikhism. As a result of his visit, he donated land to the langar and the Mughals did not have any conflict withSikh gurus until his death in 1605.[19]
His successorJahangir, saw the Sikhs as a political threat. He orderedGuru Arjan, who had been arrested for supporting the rebelliousKhusrau Mirza,[20] to change the passage about Islam[clarification needed] in theAdi Granth. When the Guru refused, Jahangir ordered him to be put to death by torture.[21] Guru Arjan'smartyrdom led to the sixth Guru,Guru Hargobind, declaring Sikhsovereignty in the creation of theAkal Takht and the establishment of a fort to defendAmritsar.[22]
Jahangir attempted to assert authority over the Sikhs by jailing Guru Hargobind atGwalior Fort, but released him after a number of years when he no longer felt threatened. The Sikh community did not have any further issues with the Mughal Empire until the death of Jahangir in 1627. The succeeding son of Jahangir,Shah Jahan, took offence at Guru Hargobind's "sovereignty" and after a series of assaults on Amritsar forced the Sikhs to retreat to theSivalik Hills.[22]
The next guru,Guru Har Rai, maintained the guruship in these hills by defeating local attempts to seize Sikh land and playing a neutral role in the power struggle between two of the sons of Shah Jahan,Aurangzeb andDara Shikoh, for control of the Mughal Empire. The ninth Guru,Guru Tegh Bahadur, moved the Sikh community toAnandpur and travelled extensively to visit and preach in defiance of Aurangzeb, who attempted to install theexcommunicatedRam Rai as the new guru. Guru Tegh Bahadur aidedKashmiri Pandits in avoiding conversion toIslam and was arrested under the orders of Aurangzeb. When offered a choice between conversion to Islam and death, he chose to die rather than compromise his principles and was executed.[23]
Guru Gobind Singh assumed the guruship in 1675 and to avoid battles with Sivalik Hill rajas moved the guruship toPaonta. There he built a large fort to protect the city and garrisoned an army to protect it. The growing power of the Sikh community alarmed theShivalik Hill rajas, who attempted to attack the city, butGuru Gobind Singh's forces routed them at theBattle of Bhangani. He moved on to Anandpur and established theKhalsa, a collective army of baptised Sikhs, on 30 March 1699.[24]
The establishment of the Khalsa united the Sikh community against various Mughal-backed claimants to the guruship.[25] In 1701, a combined army of the Sivalik Hill rajas and the Mughals underWazir Khan attacked Anandpur. The Khalsa retreated but regrouped to defeat the Mughals at theBattle of Muktsar. In 1707,Guru Gobind Singh accepted an invitation by Aurangzeb's successorBahadur Shah I to meet him. The meeting took place atAgra on 23 July 1707.[24]
In August 1708, Guru Gobind Singh visitedNanded. There he met a Bairāgī recluse, Madho Das, who converted to Sikhism, rechristened asBanda Singh Bahadur.[24][26] A short time before his death, Guru Gobind Singh ordered him to reconquer Punjab region and gave him a letter that commanded all Sikhs to join him. After two years of gaining supporters, Banda Singh Bahadur initiated an agrarian uprising by breaking up the large estates ofzamindar families and distributing the land to the poorpeasants who farmed the land.[27]
Banda Singh Bahadur started his rebellion by defeating the Mughal armies at theBattle of Samana, establishing the First Sikh State in 1709. This was followed the next year by another Sikh victory at theBattle of Sadhaura. The rebellion culminated following their defeat at theSiege of Gurdaspur. During the rebellion, Banda Singh Bahadur made a point of destroying the cities in which Mughals had been cruel to the supporters of Guru Gobind Singh. He executed Wazir Khan in revenge for the deaths of Guru Gobind Singh's sons and Pir Budhu Shah after the Sikh victory atSirhind.[28]
He ruled the territory between theSutlej river and theYamuna river, established a capital in theHimalayas atLohgarh and struckcoinage in the names ofGuru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh.[27] In 1716, his army was defeated by the Mughals after he attempted to defend his fort atGurdas Nangal. He was captured along with 700 of his men and sent toDelhi, where they were all tortured and executed after refusing to convert toIslam.[29]
The period from 1716 to 1799 was a highly turbulent time politically and militarily in the Punjab region. This was caused by the overall decline of the Mughal empire[30] that left a power vacuum in the region that was eventually filled by the Sikhs of theDal Khalsa, meaning "Khalsa army" or "Khalsa party". In the late 18th century, after defeating several invasions by the Afghan rulers of theDurrani Empire and their allies,[31] remnants of the Mughals and theirviceroys, the Mughal-allied Hindu hill rajas of theSivalik Hills,[32][33] and hostile local Muslims siding with other Muslim forces.[31] The Sikhs of theDal Khalsa eventually formed their own independent Sikh administrative regions,Misls, derived from a Perso-Arabic term meaning 'similar', headed byMisldars. These Misls were united in large part by Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
After the reign ofJassa Singh Ramgarhia, the Sikh Misls became divided and fought each other. A sort of 'Cold War' broke out with theBhangi,Nakkai,Dalelwala andRamgharia misls versesSukerchakia,Ahluwalia,Karor Singhia andKaniyeha. TheShaheedan,Nishania andSinghpuria also allied but did not engage in warfare with the others and continued the Dal Khalsa.
ThePhulkian Misl was excommunicated from the confederacy.Sada Kaur of the Kanhaiya Misl rose in the vacuum and destroyed the power of the Bhangis. She later gave her throne to Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
The formal start of the Sikh Empire began with the unification of the Misls by 1801, creating a unified political state. All the Misl leaders, who were affiliated with the army, were the nobility with usually long and prestigious family backgrounds in Sikh history.[1]
The main geographical footprint of the empire was from thePunjab region toKhyber Pass in the west, to Kashmir in the north,Sindh in the south, andTibet in the east.[8]
In 1799,Ranjit Singh moved the capital toLahore fromGujranwala, where it had been established in 1763 by his grandfather,Charat Singh.[34]
Ranjit Singh annexed theSial State, a local Muslim-ruled chieftaincy, after invadingJhang in 1807.[35] The basis for this annexation was that the local ruler of Jhang, Ahmad Khan Sial, was conspiring withNawab Muzaffar Khan of Multan and had signed a secret treaty with the latter.[35]
Hari Singh Nalwa wasCommander-in-Chief of theSikh Khalsa Army from 1825 to 1837.[36] He is known for his role in the conquests ofKasur,Sialkot,Multan,Kashmir,Attock andPeshawar. Nalwa led the Sikh army in freeingShah Shuja from Kashmir and secured theKoh-i-Nor diamond for Maharaja Ranjit Singh. He served as governor of Kashmir andHazara and established amint on behalf of the Sikh empire to facilitate revenue collection. His frontier policy of holding theKhyber Pass was later used by theBritish Raj. Nalwa was responsible for expanding the frontier of Sikh empire to theIndus River. At the time of his death, the western boundary of the Sikh Empire was the Khyber Pass.
TheNamgyal dynasty of Ladakh paid regular annual tribute to the Sikh Empire starting 1819 until 1834.[37] The tribute was paid to the local Sikh governors of Kashmir.[37] The Namgyal kingdom would later be conquered by theDogras, under the leadership of Zorawar Singh.[38]
The domain of theMaqpon dynasty ofBaltistan, based inSkardu, under the rule of Ahmad Shah Maqpon, was conquered in 1839–40 and its local ruler was deposed.[38][39][40][41] The Dogras at this time were under the suzerainty of the Sikh Empire.[38]
During theSino-Sikh War of 1841, the forces of the empire invadedTibet, which was then under the control of theQing dynasty.[42] However, this control was short-lived and the military of the empire was forced to retreat to Ladakh due to a counterattack by the Chinese and Tibetans.[42]
TheCis-Sutlej states were a group of Sikh[43] states in the Punjab region lying between theSutlej River to the north, theHimalayas to the east, theYamuna River andDelhi district to the south, andSirsa District to the west. These states fell under thesuzerainty of theMaratha Empire after 1785 before theSecond Anglo-Maratha War of 1803–1805, after which the Marathas lost control of the territory to theBritish East India Company. The Cis-Sutlej states includedKalsia,Kaithal,Patiala,Nabha,Jind,Thanesar,Malerkotla,Ludhiana,Kapurthala,Ambala,Ferozpur andFaridkot, among others.[44] The Sikh Empire ofRanjit Singh occupied Faridkot State in 1807.[45] However, control was restored to Gulab Singh of Faridkot in 1809 due to the signing of a treaty between the Lahore Darbar and the British East India Company.[45]
While these Sikh states had been set up by theDal Khalsa, they did not become part of the Sikh Empire. There was a mutual ban on warfare following thetreaty of Amritsar in 1809 (in which the empire forfeited the claim to the Cis-Sutlej States, and the British were not to interfere north of the Sutlej or in the empire's existing territory south of the Sutlej),[46] following attempts by Ranjit Singh to wrest control of these states from the British between 1806 and 1809[47][48]
The Sikh crossing of the Sutlej, following British militarization of the border with Punjab (from 2,500 men and six guns in 1838 to 17,612 men and 66 guns in 1844, and 40,523 men and 94 guns in 1845), and plans on using the newly conquered territory of Sindh as a springboard to advance on the Sikh-held region of Multan,[49] eventually resulted in conflict with the British.
After Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, the empire was severely weakened by internal divisions and political mismanagement. This opportunity was used by theBritish East India Company to launch theFirst Anglo-Sikh War.
TheBattle of Ferozeshah in 1845 marked many turning points, the British encountered theKhalsa Army, opening with a gun-duel in which the Sikhs "had the better of the British artillery". As the British made advances, Europeans in their army were specially targeted, as the Sikhs believed if the army "became demoralized, the backbone of the enemy's position would be broken".[50] The fighting continued throughout the night. The British position "grew graver as the night wore on", and "suffered terrible casualties with every single member of the Governor General's staff either killed or wounded".[51] Nevertheless, the British army took and held Ferozeshah. British General SirJames Hope Grant recorded: "Truly the night was one of gloom and forbidding and perhaps never in the annals of warfare has a British Army on such a large scale been nearer to a defeat which would have involved annihilation."[51]
The reasons for the withdrawal of the Sikhs from Ferozeshah are contentious. Some believe that it was treachery of the non-Sikh high command of their own army which led to them marching away from a British force in a precarious and battered state. Others believe that a tactical withdrawal was the best policy.[citation needed]
The Sikh empire was finally dissolved at the end of theSecond Anglo-Sikh War in 1849 into separateprincely states and the Britishprovince of Punjab. Eventually, a Lieutenant Governorship was formed in Lahore as a direct representative of theBritish Crown.
The empire's ruling court based out of Lahore is termed theLahore Darbar orKhalsa Darbar.[18][17] Faqir Saifuddin of theFakir Khana Museum prefers to use the termPunjab Darbar rather than "Khalsa Darbar", owing to the large role Muslims played in Ranjit Singh's court.[52] The ruling court was diverse and under the ultimate command of the rulingmaharaja, who was the "drum of the Khalsa".[18] In-theory, the Sikh court was based on the Khalsa ideals propounded by Guru Gobind Singh yet the court was secular in-practice.[18] As an example of this secularism, members of the court came from various religious background, including Sikhs, Hindus, Muslims, and Christians.[18] Furthermore, the members also came from various ethnic, regional, and caste backgrounds, such as Dogras, Rajputs, Brahmins, Jats, and Europeans.[18] Whilst Ranjit Singh himself preferred to dress modestly, the Sikh court was filled with elaborately garbed and decorated members.[18] Only three individuals were permitted to be seated on chairs within the durbar, them namely being heir-apparentKharak Singh,KanwarSher Singh, and Raja Hira Singh.[18] Three sides of the hall of the durbar were covered with golden-pillars, with shawl carpets that were embroidered with gold and silver, and inset with precious stones, decorating the floor.[18] The maharaja was seated on agolden throne, with Ranjit Singh preferring to sit cross-legged on it.[18] The member of the court allowed to be seated behind the maharaja was RajaDhian Singh.[18] The rest of the members of the court were seated as per their rank and status.[18] The colours of the Sikh court were yellow and green.[18] Thus, most of its members donned yellow-coloured dressings made from Kashmiri silk or woolens.[18] However, there existed no strict categorization scheme of the rankings of the constituent members of the Lahore Darbar, thus the rankings of its members was determined by the level of trust the maharaja held in them.[18] The court also granted awards upon its members, with most of these essentially beingbestowed titles in the form of honourifics, however some members were grantedjagirs (estate grant).[18] Laziness was heavily looked-down upon with the court, with the ruling maharaja often sending out the court's members on military or diplomatic missions.[18]
The business of the ruling government was carried out in Lahore, specifically the Musamman Burj located within theLahore Fort.[18] A public court was held from morning until noon in theDiwan-i-Aam ("hall of audience"), with the court being attended by important members of the court, including princes, ministers, nobles, and civil and military officers.[18] Some matters discussed in the court include high-level civil and military appointments, reports from theprovincial governors (provincialsatraps) andkardars (tax collectors).[18] When matters of the court were read-out, royal decrees made orally were transferred into writing for final approval.[18] Tributes andnazaranas were also exchanged or bestowed within the court.[18] Supplicants to the court were dismissed withkhill'ats (robes) or monetary gifts.[18] When the maharaja was travelling, the court ceased to be static and was held at whatever location the maharaja's retinue decided to hold-up at, often under a tree or whilst moving on horseback.[18] The maharaja would dictate orders to provincial governors whilst inspecting their troops or even in the midst of battle.[18]
Noble members of the court, including relatives of the royal family, resided in palatialhaveli structures and donned expensive clothing and accessories (such as jewelry).[18] The Sikh princes, and also Raja Dhian Singh, were permitted to hold their own miniaturedurbars (courts).[18]
Foreign visitors to the Sikh court were treated with respect and hospitality, with many contemporary accounts of foreign visitors to the court noting the good-treatment afforded to them by the state.[18] When a foreign visitor arrived, they would be greeted by a protocol officer, who would arrange for their temporary residence, which was based upon the status of the visitor.[18] The state government paid for the expenses regarding the visitor's entertainment.[18] There exists accounts of visitors being gifted by the state, with presents such as fruits, sweets, wines, and also money.[18] Full displays of the empire's regalia and military forces were displayed during important ceremonial functions, such as the marriages of important nobles or when receiving high-level foreign diplomatic dignitaries.[18]
In order to keep tabs and updated on the happenings of surrounding regions, including remote parts of its territory and foreign countries, the Sikh court received reports from thewaqa'nawis (news-writers) located in the empire's provinces (subas).[18] The reports were dispatched to the Lahore Darbar at regular intervals.[18] Furthermore, thevakils (agents) of foreign countries were associated with the Sikh court on a reciprocal basis.[18] The Sikh court had news-writers located in Afghanistan and also had its ownvakil emissaries in theCis-Sutlej States and also in territory under the British East India Company's rule.[18] Other vakil emissaries of the Sikh court were sent toRajputana, theMarathas, andNepal on complimentary missions.[18]
Western/European officers from various backgrounds, including Britishers, Frenchmen, Germans, Italians, Spaniards, Americans, and Russians, also rose to high levels within the Sikh court in many instances.[18] However, the Sikh court was wary of the Westerners within the court, and kept them therefore under strict regulation.[18] These foreign Western members of the court were persuaded by the state to integrate themselves by marrying a local woman, settling down within the empire, and adopt the cultural customs of the locals, such as growing out a beard or wearing a turban.[18] The Western members of the court were also banned from publiclyconsuming beef orsmoking.[18]
The Sikh Empire did enact a simple border policy where it did not allow uninvited foreigners into the state.[53] The purpose of this border policy was to dissuade potential foreign spies from entering the country.[53] An example of the policy in-action is the case of Captain Arnold Mathews, who snuck into the Sikh Empire in circa 1808 to spy under the guise of being a tourist headed towards Kashmir but was intercepted and brought to Lahore.[53]
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The Sikh court observed the festivals ofVaisakhi,Dussehra,Basant,Holi, andDiwali.[18] Vaisakhi was considered an especially auspicious celebration within the Sikh court, with it giving and distributing gifts of money, gold, silver, cows, horses, elephants, gold-bangles, and food to Brahmins and the poor.[18] During Basant celebrations, the military troops of the empire were paraded donning yellow uniforms, with members of the Sikh court and nobles also wearing yellow clothing on the day.[18] During Basant, the officials bore gifts for the sovereign ruler, with the ruler in-turn bestowing robe-of-honours to the officials based on their rank and status.[18] During celebrations of Dussehra, the Sikh court assembled itself at Amritsar and thejagirdari troops of the empire's military were paraded and inspected by the maharaja.[18]
The Sikh Empire spanned a total of over 200,000 sq mi (520,000 km2) at its zenith.[54][55][56] Another more conservative estimate puts its total surface area during its zenith at 100,436 sq mi (260,124 km sq).[57]
The following modern-day political divisions made up the historical Sikh Empire:
Jamrud District (Khyber Agency, Pakistan) was the westernmost limit of the Sikh Empire. The westward expansion was stopped in theBattle of Jamrud, in which the Afghans managed to kill the prominent Sikh generalHari Singh Nalwa in an offensive, though the Sikhs successfully held their position at their Jamrud fort. Ranjit Singh sent his General Sirdar Bahadur Gulab Singh Powind thereafter as reinforcement and he crushed the Pashtun rebellion harshly.[67] In 1838, Ranjit Singh with his troops marched into Kabul to take part in the victory parade along with the British after restoring Shah Shoja to the Afghan throne at Kabul.[68]
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The empire was divided into various provinces (known asSubas), with them namely being as follows as perHari Ram Gupta:[57][10]
| No. | Name | Estimated population (1838) | Major population centres |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | Lahore | 1,900,000 | Lahore,Amritsar andGujranwala |
| 2. | Multan | 750,000 | Multan,Laiah andDera Ghazi Khan |
| 3. | Peshawar | 550,000 | Peshawar,Kohat,Hazara,Dera Ismail Khan andBannu |
| 4. | Kashmir | Srinagar | |
| 5. | Jammu | 1,100,000 | Jammu |
| 6. | Gujrat/Wazirabad | Gujrat,Attock,Rawalpindi andMianwali | |
| 7. | Jalandhar | Jalandhar | |
| 8. | Kangra | Kangra,Chamba andBilaspur |
Hans Herrli instead claims there were five provinces of the Sikh Empire, namely Lahore, Multan, Peshawar, Derajat, and Jammu and Hill States.[57]
The Sikh Empire allowed men from religions other than their own to rise to commanding positions of authority.[69]
The Fakir brothers were trusted personal advisors and assistants as well as close friends to Ranjit Singh,[70] particularlyFakir Azizuddin, who would serve in the positions of foreign minister of the empire and translator for the maharaja, and played important roles in such important events as the negotiations with the British, during which he convinced Ranjit Singh to maintain diplomatic ties with the British and not to go to war with them in 1808, as British troops were moved along the Sutlej in pursuance of the British policy of confining Ranjit Singh to the north of the river, and setting the Sutlej as the dividing boundary between the Sikh andBritish empires;[71] negotiating withDost Muhammad Khan during his unsuccessful attempt to retakePeshawar,[71] and ensuring the succession of the throne during the Maharaja's last days in addition to caretaking after a stroke, as well as occasional military assignments throughout his career.[72] The Fakir brothers were introduced to the Maharaja when their father, Ghulam Muhiuddin, a physician, was summoned by him to treat an eye ailment soon after his capture of Lahore.[73]
The other Fakir brothers were Imamuddin, one of his principal administrative officers, and Nuruddin, who served as home minister and personal physician, were also granted jagirs by the Maharaja.[74]
Every year, while at Amritsar, Ranjit Singh visited shrines of holy people of other faiths, including several Muslim saints, which did not offend even the most religious Sikhs of his administration.[75]As relayed by Fakir Nuruddin, orders were issued to treat people of all faith groups, occupations,[76] and social levels equally and in accordance with the doctrines of their faith, per theShastras and theQuran, as well as local authorities like judges andpanches (local elder councils),[77] as well as banning forcible possession of others' land or of inhabited houses to be demolished.[78] There were special courts for Muslims which ruled in accordance to Muslim law in personal matters,[79] and common courts preceded over by judicial officers which administered justice under the customary law of the districts and socio-ethnic groups, and were open to all who wanted to be governed by customary religious law, whether Hindu, Sikh, or Muslim.[79]
One of Ranjit Singh's first acts after the 1799 capture of Lahore was to revive the offices of the hereditaryQazis andMuftis which had been prevalent in Mughal times.[79] Qazi Nizamuddin was appointed to decide marital issues among Muslims, while Muftis Mohammad Shahpuri and Sadulla Chishti were entrusted with powers to draw up title-deeds relating to transfers of immovable property.[79] The old mohalladari[definition needed] system was reintroduced with eachmahallah, or neighborhood subdivision, placed under the charge of one of its members. The office ofKotwal, or prefect of police, was conferred upon a Muslim, Imam Bakhsh.[79]
Generals were also drawn from a variety of communities, along with prominent Sikh generals likeHari Singh Nalwa, Fateh Singh Dullewalia, Nihal Singh Atariwala,Chattar Singh Attariwalla, and Fateh Singh Kalianwala; Hindu generals includedMisr Diwan Chand andDewan Mokham Chand Nayyar, his son, and his grandson; and Muslim generals includedIlahi Bakhsh and Mian Ghaus Khan; one general,Balbhadra Kunwar, was a Nepalese Gurkha, and European generals includedJean-Francois Allard,Jean-Baptiste Ventura, andPaolo Avitabile.[80] other notable generals of theSikh Khalsa Army wereVeer Singh Dhillon,[citation needed]Sham Singh Attariwala,Mahan Singh Mirpuri, andZorawar Singh Kahluria, among others.
The appointment of key posts in public offices was based on merit and loyalty, regardless of the social group or religion of the appointees, both in and around the court, and in higher as well as lower posts. Key posts in the civil and military administration were held by members of communities from all over the empire and beyond, including Sikhs, Muslims,Khatris,Brahmins,Dogras,Rajputs,Pashtuns, Europeans, andAmericans, among others,[81] and worked their way up the hierarchy to attain merit.Dhian Singh, the prime minister, was a Dogra, whose brothersGulab Singh and Suchet Singh served in the high-ranking administrative and military posts, respectively.[81] Brahmins like finance ministerRaja Dina Nath, Sahib Dyal, and others also served in financial capacities.[80]
Muslims in prominent positions included the Fakir brothers, Qazi Nizamuddin, and Mufti Muhammad Shah, among others. Among the top-ranking Muslim officers there were two ministers, one governor and several district officers; there were 41 high-ranking Muslim officers in the army, including two generals and several colonels,[80] and 92 Muslims were senior officers in the police, judiciary, legal department and supply and store departments.[80] In artillery, Muslims represented over 50% of the numbers while the cavalry had some 10% Muslims from among the troopers.[11]
Thus, the government was run by an elite corps drawn from many communities, giving the empire the character of a secular system of government, even when built on theocratic foundations.[82]
A ban on cow slaughter, which can be related to Hindu sentiments, was universally imposed in the empire.[83][84] Ranjit Singh also donated large amounts of gold for the plating of theKashi Vishwanath Temple's dome.[85][86]
The Sikhs attempted not to offend the prejudices of Muslims, noted Baron vonHügel, the Austrian botanist and explorer,[87] yet the Sikhs were described as harsh. In this regard, Masson's explanation is perhaps the most pertinent: "Though compared to the Afghans, the Sikhs were mild and exerted a protecting influence, yet no advantages could compensate to their Mohammedan subjects, the idea of subjection to infidels, and the prohibition to slaykine, and to repeat theazan, or 'summons to prayer'."[88]
According toChitralekha Zutshi andWilliam Roe Polk, Sikh governors adopted policies that alienated the Muslim population such as the ban on cow slaughter and theazan (the Islamic call to prayer), the seizure of mosques as property of the state, and imposed ruinous taxes onKashmiri Muslims causing a famine in 1832. In addition,begar (forced labour) was imposed by the Sikh administration to facilitate the supply of materials to the imperial army, a policy that was augmented by the successive Dogra rulers.[89][90][91] These policies led the Kashmiri Muslim population to emigrate en masse to more lenient neighboring regions, particularlyLadakh.[92] As a symbolic assertion of power, the Sikhs regularly desecrated Muslim places of worship, including closing of theJamia Masjid of Srinagar and the conversion of theBadshahi Mosque in Lahore to an ammunition store and horse stable, but the empire still maintained Persian administrative institutions and court etiquette; the Sikh silver rupees were minted on the Mughal standard with Persian legends.[93][94]
Christian missionaries had been active in the Punjab even prior to the dissolution of the empire in 1849.[95]
The population of the Sikh empire during the time ofRanjit Singh's rule was estimated to be around 12 million people.[6] There were 8.4 millionMuslims, 2.88 millionHindus and 722,000Sikhs.[96]
The religious demography of the empire is estimated to have been just over 10%[97] to 12%[98] Sikh, 80% Muslim,[97] and just under 10% Hindu.[97]Surjit Hans gave different numbers by retrospectively projecting the 1881 census, putting Muslims at 51%, Hindus at 40% and Sikhs at around 8%, the remaining 1% being Europeans.[99] The population was 3.5 million in 1831, according toAmarinder Singh'sThe Last Sunset: The Rise and Fall of the Lahore Durbar.[100] Hans Herrli inThe Coins of the Sikhs estimated the total population of the empire to be around 5.35 million during 1838.[57]
An estimated 90% of the Sikh population at the time, and more than half of the total population, was concentrated in the upperBari,Jalandhar, and upperRachnaDoabs, and in the areas of their greatest concentration formed about one third of the population in the 1830s; half of the Sikh population of this core region was in the area covered by the later districts of Lahore and Amritsar.[98]
In 1839, a major pogrom, called theAllahdad, targeting thelocal Jews ofMashhad inQajar Persia had occurred.[101] A group ofPersian Jewish refugees from Mashhad, escaping persecution back home in Qajar Persia, settled in the Sikh Empire around the year 1839.[101] Most of the Jewish families settled inRawalpindi (specifically in the Babu Mohallah neighbourhood) andPeshawar.[102][103][104][105][101] Most of these Jews would leave for theDominion of India during thepartition of 1947.[106][101]
| Sr | Particulars | Revenue in Rupees | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Land Revenue | ||
| 1.a | Tributary States | 5,65,000 | |
| 1.b | Farms | 1,79,85,000 | |
| 1.c | Eleemosynary | 20,00,000 | |
| 1.d | Jagirs | 95,25,000 | |
| 2 | Customs | 24,00,000 | |
| Total | 3,24,75,000 | ||
Land revenue was the main source of income, accounting for about 70% of the state's income. Besides this, the other sources of income were customs, excises and monopolies.[108]
| S. No. | Name | Portrait | Birth and death | Reign | Note | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Maharaja Ranjit Singh |  | 13 November 1780 (Gujranwala) | 27 June 1839 (Lahore) | 12 April 1801 | 27 June 1839 | 38 years, 76 days | Founder of the empire | Stroke |
| 2 | Maharaja Kharak Singh |  | 22 February 1801 (Lahore) | 5 November 1840 (Lahore) | 27 June 1839 | 8 October 1839 | 103 days | Son of Ranjit Singh | Poisoning |
| 3 | Maharaja Nau Nihal Singh |  | 11 February 1820 (Lahore) | 6 November 1840 (Lahore) | 8 October 1839 | 6 November 1840 | 1 year, 29 days | Son of Kharak Singh | Assassinated |
| Maharani Chand Kaur (regent) |  | 1802 (Fatehgarh Churian) | 11 June 1842 (Lahore) | 6 November 1840 | 18 January 1841 | 73 days | Wife of Kharak Singh | Abdicated | |
| 4 | Maharaja Sher Singh |  | 4 December 1807 (Batala) | 15 September 1843 (Lahore) | 18 January 1841 | 15 September 1843 | 2 years, 240 days | Son of Ranjit Singh | Assassinated |
| 5 | Maharaja Duleep Singh | .jpg) | 6 September 1838 (Lahore) | 22 October 1893 (Paris) | 15 September 1843 | 29 March 1849 | 5 years, 195 days | Son of Ranjit Singh | Exiled |
| Maharani Jind Kaur (regent; nominal) |  | 1817 (Gujranwala) | 1 August 1863 (Kensington) | 15 September 1843 | 29 March 1849 | 5 years, 195 days | Wife of Ranjit Singh | Exiled | |
![[icon]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWiki_letter_w_cropped.svg) | This sectionneeds expansion with: Add governors for other provinces. You can help bymaking an edit requestadding to it.(March 2025) |
The nominal and acting governors of Kashmir during Sikh-rule and their tenures are as follows:[111]
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![Ranjit Singh, c. 1830.[112]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMaharaj_Ranjit_Singh.jpg)
| Preceded by | Sikh Empire 1799–1849 | Succeeded by |
We see such acquaintance clearly within the Sikh court of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, for example, the principal language of which was Persian.
By 1839, the year of his death, the Sikh kingdom extended from Tibet and Kashmir to Sind and from the Khyber Pass to the Himalayas in the east. It spanned 600 miles from east to west and 350 miles from north to south, comprising an area of just over 200,000 square miles.
When Ranjit Singh realised that Ahmad Khan Sial of Jhang had concluded a secret treaty with Nawab Muzaffar Khan of Multan, he annexed Jhang in 1807 and gave Ahmad Khan a jagir at Mirowal near Amritsar.
Thus Baltistan remained under local Rajas who paid only nominal allegiance to subsequent rulers of Kashmir until subdued by a Sikh army in 1840, and who stayed in office asjagirdars under the Hindu Dogra Maharajas (1846–1947) and even in Pakistan until 1972. ... As has been stated above, there are no reliable indicators for the extent to which Twelver Shi'ism had spread in Baltistan at the time of the Sikh conquest (1840).
By the 18th century, fighting among the Maqpon princes led to a decline in Skardu's importance. The Sikhs, who inherited much of the Moghul empire, annexed Baltistan in 1840 and the Balti kingdoms' sovereignty ended.
In AD 1834, the Sikh empire invaded and annexed Ladakh-a culturally Tibetan region that was an independent kingdom at the time. Seven years later, a Sikh army invaded western Tibet from Ladakh, starting the Sino-Sikh War. A Qing-Tibetan army repelled the invaders but was in turn defeated when it chased the Sikhs into Ladakh. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Chushul between the Chinese and Sikh empires (Rubin 1960). As the Qing dynasty declined, its influence on Tibet weakened gradually. By the late nineteenth cen tury, Qing's authority over Tibet had become more symbolic.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)The Sikh kingdom expanded from Tibet in the east to Kashmir in the west and from Sind in the south to the Khyber Pass in the north, an area of 200,000 square miles.
…the Sikh state encompassed over 200,000 square miles (518,000 sq km)
..into existence a kingdom of the Punjab of over 200,000 square miles
In addition to the masjid's use as a site for military storage, stables for the cavalry horses, and barracks for soldiers, parts of it were also used as storage for powder magazines.
The history of Jews in Rawalpindi dates back to 1839 when many Jewish families from Mashhad fled to save themselves from the persecutions and settled in various parts of subcontinent including Peshawar and Rawalpindi.
Jews first arrived in Rawalpindi's Babu Mohallah neighbourhood from Mashhad, Persia in 1839, in order to flee from anti-Jewish laws instituted by the Qajar dynasty.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
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