| Siege of Pensacola | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of theGulf Coast campaign | |||||||||
 Spanish Troops at Pensacola, Florida byH. Charles McBarron Jr., showing the Louisiana Regiment (white coats) and the Company of Free Blacks of Havana (red coats) storming Fort George atPensacola. | |||||||||
| |||||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||||
 Spain France | Creek | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
 John Campbell   Konrad von Horn | |||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
| 7,400 regulars and militia[1][2] 10,000 sailors and marines 21 ships[3] (Including 1,500 French sailors and 750 French soldiers)[4] | 1,300 regulars, rangers and militia[5] 500 Natives[6][1] | ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
| 95 killed 202 wounded[7][1] | 155 killed 105 wounded 1,113 captured[7][1] 2 sloops captured | ||||||||
  Pensacola Location within North America | |||||||||
Thesiege of Pensacola, fought from March 9 to May 10, 1781, was the culmination ofSpain's conquest ofWest Florida during theGulf Coast Campaign of theAmerican Revolutionary War.[8][1] The siege was commanded byBernardo de Gálvez, whose nearly 8,000 troops ultimately overran the British forces in the region. The success of the siege resulted in Gálvez' promotion to governor of West Florida andLouisiana.
WhenSpain entered theAmerican Revolutionary War in 1779,Bernardo de Gálvez, the energetic governor ofSpanish Louisiana, immediately began offensive operations to gain control ofWest Florida beginning with his assault atFort Bute. In September 1779 he gained control over the lowerMississippi River bycapturing Fort Bute and then shortly thereafter obtaining the surrender of the remaining forces following theBattle of Baton Rouge. He followed up these successes with thecapture of Mobile on March 14, 1780, after a brief siege.
Gálvez began planning an assault onPensacola, West Florida's capital, using forces fromHavana with the recently captured Mobile as the launching point for the attack. British reinforcements arriving in Pensacola in April 1780 delayed the expedition, however, and when an invasion fleet finally sailed in October it was dispersed bySolano's Hurricane a few days later. Gálvez spent nearly a month regrouping the fleet at Havana.[9][10]
Following the outbreak of hostilities with Spain in 1779, GeneralJohn Campbell, concerned over the condition of the defenses, requested reinforcements and began construction of additional defenses.[11] By early 1781 the Pensacola garrison consisted of the16th Regiment, a battalion from the60th, and7 (Johnstones) Company of the 4th Battalion Royal Artillery (Present day20 Battery Royal Artillery,16 Regiment Royal Artillery). These were augmented by the Third Regiment ofWaldeck and the Maryland Loyalist Battalion, as well as the Pennsylvania Loyalists. These troops were provincial soldiers rather thanmilitia.[11][1]
In addition to theLoyalist soldiers, some bands ofIndians supported the British. After the fall of Mobile in March 1780, between 1,500 and 2,000 Indians had come at various points to Pensacola to join in its defense.[1] These allies included theChoctaw andCreek, with Creeks being the most numerous. Just before the Spanish attack about 800 Indian braves remained in Pensacola, as Campbell, not realizing the attack was imminent, had sent about 300 away. During the siege and battle there were ultimately about 500 of these left at Pensacola, due to efforts of the Creeks to take a more "balanced" role by offering supplies to both sides and diminishing their role on the British side. The majority of the warrior bands still present during the siege were Choctaw.[12][1]
Gálvez had received detailed descriptions of the state of the defenses in 1779, when he sent an aide there ostensibly to discuss the return of escaped slaves, although Campbell had made numerous changes since then. Pensacola's defensive works in early 1781 consisted ofFort George, an earthen works topped by apalisade that was rebuilt under Campbell's directions in 1780. North of the fort he had built the Prince of WalesRedoubt, and to its northwest was the Queen's Redoubt, also built in 1780.[13] Campbell erected a battery calledFort Barrancas Colorada near the mouth of the bay.
Gálvez embarked his flag with the Spanish fleet, under the command of Captain José Calvo de Irazabal. With about 1,300 men, the regular troops included aMajorcan regiment andArturo O'Neill commanding 319 men of Spain's IrishHibernia Regiment, and including militias of biracial and free Afro-Cubans.[14] Gálvez had also ordered additional troops from New Orleans and Mobile to assist.
The Spanish expeditionary force sailed from Havana on February 13. Arriving outsidePensacola Bay on March 9, Gálvez landed some troops onSanta Rosa Island, thebarrier island protecting the bay. O'Neill's Hibernians landed at the island battery, which he found undefended, and set up artillery which he used to drive away the British ships taking shelter in the bay. However, bringing the Spanish ships into the bay turned out to be difficult, just as it had been the previous year at the capture of Mobile. Supplies were offloaded onto Santa Rosa Island to raise the draft of some of the ships, but Calvo, the fleet commander, refused to send any more ships through the channel after the lead ship, the 64-cannonSan Ramon, grounded in its attempt. Furthermore, some British guns seemed to have the range to fire on the bay's entrance.[15]
Gálvez used his authority as governor of Louisiana to commandeer the ships that were from Louisiana. He boarded theGálveztown, and on March 18 he sailed her through the channel and into the bay. The three other Louisiana ships followed him, under what proved to be ineffective British artillery fire. After sending Calvo a detailed description of the channel, his captains all insisted on making the crossing, which they did the next day. Calvo, claiming that his assignment to deliver Gálvez' invasion force was now complete, sailed back to Havana in theSan Ramon.[15]
On March 24, the Spanish army and its accompanying militia moved to the center of operations. O'Neill served asaide-de-camp and commander of the scout patrols. Once the bay had been entered, O'Neill's scouts landed on the mainland and blunted an attack by 400 mainly pro-British Choctaw Indians on the afternoon of March 28. The scouts soon joined forces with the Spanish troops arriving from Mobile.
During the first weeks of April, O'Neill's scouts reconnoitered the Pensacola fortifications. The redoubt farthest from the city was the Crescent. Next distant was the Sombrero, followed by Fort George. The Spanish troops established encampments and began extensive preparations for a siege. Hundreds of engineers and laborers brought supplies and armaments to the battlefield.[16] The engineers also dug trenches and built bunkers and redoubts, besides constructing a covered road to shield the troops from the constant fire of grapeshot, grenades, and cannonballs.[17] On April 12, Gálvez was wounded while viewing the British fortifications. Battlefield command was formally transferred to ColonelJosé de Ezpeleta, a personal friend of Gálvez.[18]
A second attack by the Choctaws began on April 19, interrupting the siege preparations, and that day a large fleet was sighted heading towards the bay. Although at first thought to be bringing British reinforcements, the ships turned out to be the combined Spanish and French fleet from Havana commanded byJosé Solano y Bote andFrançois-Aymar de Monteil, having on board SpanishField Marshal Juan Manuel de Cagigal. Reports of a British squadron sighted near Cape San Antonio had reached Havana, and reinforcements had been sent to Gálvez. The Spanish ships carried a total of 1,700 sailors and 1,600 soldiers, bringing the total Spanish force at Pensacola to 8,000 men.[19] Solano decided to remain to assist Gálvez after the disembarkation of the troops, and the two men worked closely together. From the end of April to the beginning of May, the artillery positions of the Spanish were strengthened, making trenches and tunnels closer and closer, and causing greater damage to the British defenses.[20][21][22][23]
On April 24 a third Choctaw attack caught the Spanish by surprise. Five Spanish were wounded, including O’Neill's cousin, Sublieutenant Felipe O'Reilly. Two days later, soldiers from the Queen's Redoubt attacked Spanish positions but were driven back by O'Neill's scouts.
On April 30, the Spanish batteries opened fire, signalling the start of the full-scale attack on Pensacola. However, the gulf was experiencing tempestuous storms, and a hurricane struck the Spanish ships on May 5 and 6. The Spanish fleet had to be withdrawn, for fear the seas would wreck the ships on the shore. The army remained to continue the siege, even though the trenches were flooded. Gálvez issued them a daily ration of brandy to keep up their spirits.[24]
In early May, Gálvez was surprised to receive chiefs of the Tallapoosa Creeks, who came offering to supply the Spanish army with meat. Gálvez arranged the purchase of beef cattle from them and also requested that they appeal to the British-allied Creeks and Choctaws to cease their attacks. On May 8, a howitzer shell struck the magazine in Fort Crescent, exploding it and sending black smoke billowing. Fifty-seven British troops were killed by the devastating blast, and Ezpeleta quickly led the light infantry in a charge to take the stricken fort. The Spanish moved howitzers and cannons into what remained of it and opened fire on the next two British forts. Pensacola's defenders returned fired from Fort George but were soon overwhelmed by the massive Spanish firepower.
On May 10, realizing his final line of fortification could not survive the barrage General John Campbell reluctantly surrendered Fort George and Prince of Wales Redoubt. More than 1,100 British and colonial troops were taken prisoner, and 200 casualties were sustained. The Spanish army lost 74 dead, with another 198 wounded.[25]
Gálvez personally accepted the surrender of General John Campbell, ending British sovereignty in West Florida after signing the capitulation. The Spanish fleet left Pensacola for Havana on June 1 to prepare assaults on the remainingBritish possessions in the Caribbean. Gálvez appointed O'Neill the Spanish governor of West Florida, and his Hibernia Regiment departed with the fleet.
The terms of capitulation included the entirety of West Florida, the British garrison, large quantities of war materiel and supplies, and one Britishsloop of war.[26] Gálvez had the batteries and Fort Barrancas Coloradas moved nearer to the bay's entrance, and placed a battery on Santa Rosa Island against British attempts to recapture Pensacola.
The Tallapoosa Muscogee Creek mission during the siege was probably connected with or even ordered byAlexander McGillivray, a mixed-race Creek trader. Although he was a Loyalist and held a British commission as a colonel, he was a longtime opponent of American colonial intrusions on Creek land. Raised as a Creek, though well educated in South Carolina, McGillivray was viewed by many Creeks as their leader. He supplied the British in Pensacola and had organized the British Muskogee Creek contingents who fought alongside the Choctaws. He would become principal chief of the Upper Creeks in 1783, who lived on theTallapoosa River at Little Tallassee (near today's Montgomery, Alabama). His support for Spain later resulted in the 1784 Treaty of Pensacola, in which Spain guaranteed to respect Creek territory, in return for a Creek promise to stop raiding their neighbors and disrupting trade. McGillivray personally negotiated the treaty and spent the rest of his life in Pensacola.
Gálvez and his army were welcomed as heroes on their arrival in Havana on May 30.King Charles III promoted Gálvez to lieutenant general,[19] and he was made governor of both West Florida and Louisiana. The royal commendation stated that since Gálvez alone forced the entrance to the bay, he could place on his coat of arms the wordsYo Solo (literally, "me alone").[27][28]
Bote was later recognized by King Charles for coming to aid Gálvez with the title Marques del Socorro. A painting of Solano hanging in the Museo Naval de Madrid shows him with Santa Rosa Bay in the background. ABritish flag captured at Pensacola is displayed at theMuseum of the Army inToledo.
