Government policies during the late 1930s and early 1940s resulted in the successfulforced assimilation of various ethno-linguistic groups into the country's dominant Central Thai language and culture, leading to the termThai people to come to refer to thepopulation of Thailand overall. This includes other subgroups of the Tai ethno-linguistic group, such as theNorthern Thais and theIsan people, as well as non-Southeast Asian and non-Tai groups, the largest of which is that of theHan Chinese, who form a substantial minority ethnic group in Thailand.
Byendonym, Thai people refer themselves aschao thai (Thai:ชาวไทย,IPA:[tɕʰaːwtʰaj]), whose term eventually being derived fromProto-Tai*ɗwɤːjᴬ meaning free,[31] which emphasise that Thailand has never been a colony in thelate modern period. Academically, Thai people are referred to as theChao Phraya Thais (ไทยลุ่มเจ้าพระยา,Thai lum chao phraya).
Ethnically, Thai people are calledSiamese (ชาวสยาม,chao sayam,IPA:[tɕʰaːwsàjǎːm]) orThai Siam (ไทยสยาม,thai sayam), which refers to the Tai people inhabited inCentral andSouthern Thailand;[b] Siamese people are subdivided into three groups:Central Thai people (คนภาคกลาง),Southern Thai people (คนใต้) andKhorat Thai (ไทโคราช). Siamese was also, by historically, the exonym of those people.[b] InDu royaume de Siam, Simon de la Loubère recorded that the people whom he spoke wereTai Noi (ไทน้อย), which were different fromShan people (or Tai Yai), who lived on the mountainous area of what is nowShan State inMyanmar.[32] On 24 June 1939, however,Plaek Phibunsongkhram formally renamed the country and its peopleThailand andThai people respectively.
According toMichel Ferlus, the ethnonyms Thai/Tai (or Thay/Tay) would have evolved from the etymon*k(ə)ri: 'human being' through the following chain:*kəri: >*kəli: >*kədi:/*kədaj >*di:/*daj >*dajA (Proto-Southwestern Tai) >tʰajA2 (inSiamese andLao) or >tajA2 (in the otherSouthwestern andCentral Tai languages classified byLi Fangkuei).[33]Michel Ferlus' work is based on some simple rules of phonetic change observable in the Sinosphere and studied for the most part byWilliam H. Baxter (1992).[34]
Michel Ferlus notes that a deeply rooted belief in Thailand has it that the term "Thai" derives from the last syllables -daya in Sukhodaya/ Sukhothay (สุโขทัย), the name of theSukhothai Kingdom.[33] The spelling emphasizes this prestigious etymology by writing ไทย (transliterated ai-d-y) to designate the Thai/ Siamese people, while the form ไท (transliterated ai-d) is occasionally used to refer to Tai speaking ethnic groups.[33] Lao writes ໄທ (transliterated ai-d) in both cases.[33] The word "Tai" (ไท) without the final letter ย is also used by Thai people to refer to themselves as an ethnicity, as historical texts such as "Mahachat Kham Luang", composed in 1482 during the reign ofKing Borommatrailokkanat. The text separates the words "Tai" (ไท) from "Tet" (เทศ), which means foreigners.[35] Similarly, "Yuan Phai", a historical epic poem written in the late 15th to early 16th century, also used the word "Tai" (ไท).[36]
The French diplomatSimon de la Loubère, mentioned that, "The Siamese give to themselves the Name of Tai, or Free, and those that understand theLanguage of Pegu, affirm that Siam in that Tongue signifies Free. 'Tis from thence perhaps that the Portugues have derived this word, having probably known the Siamese by thePeguan. NeverthelessNavarete in his Historical Treatises of the Kingdom of China, relates that the Name of Siam, which he writes Sian, comes from these two wordsSien lo,[c] without adding their signification, or of what Language they are; altho' it may be presumed he gives them for Chinese,Mueang Tai is therefore the Siamese Name of the Kingdom of Siam (for Mueang signifies Kingdom) and this word wrote simply Muantay, is found in Vincent le Blanc, and in several Geographical Maps, as the Name of a Kingdom adjoining toPegu: But Vincent le Blanc apprehended not that this was the Kingdom of Siam, not imagining perhaps that Siam and Tai were two different Names of the same People. In a word, the Siamese, of whom I treat, do call themselves Tai Noe, *little Siams. There are others, as I was informed, altogether savage, which are called Tai yai, great Siams, and which do live in the Northern Mountains."[38]
Based on a Chinese source, theMing Shilu, Zhao Bo-luo-ju, described as "the heir to the old Ming-tai prince of the country of Xian-luo-hu", (Chinese:暹羅斛國舊明台王世子) sent an envoy to China in 1375. Geoff Wade suggested that Ming Tai (Chinese:明台) might represent the word "Muang Tai" while the word Jiu (Chinese:舊) means old.[39]
A map showing enclaves of the Mon people in Thailand around the 6th-7th centuries
As is generally known, the present-day Thai people were previously called Siamese before the country was renamedThailand in the mid-20th century.[40] The Thais, or Siamese, are descendants of theTai peoples who migrated south fromChina over a thousand years ago. They settled in the fertile plains of central Thailand, where they established powerful kingdoms likeSukhothai andAyutthaya. Over time, they absorbed cultural influences from pre-existing groups, including theMon.[41]
Kra-Dai migration route proposed by Matthias Gerner (2014) in a linguistic computational projectMap showing linguistic family tree overlaid on a geographic distribution map of Tai-Kadai family. This map only shows general pattern of the migration of Tai-speaking tribes, not specific routes, which would have snaked along the rivers and over the lower passes.[42]Map of theChao Phraya River drainage basin
There have been many theories proposing the origin of theTai peoples — of which the Thai are a subgroup — including an association of the Tai people with theKingdom of Nanzhao that has been proven to be invalid. A linguistic study has suggested[43] that the origin of the Tai people may lie aroundGuangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region ofsouthern China, where theZhuang people currently account for approximately one third of the total population. TheQin dynasty foundedGuangdong in 214 BC, initiating varying successive waves ofHan Chinese from thenorth for centuries to come.[34]
With dynastic Chinese political upheavals, cultural changes, and intensive Han migratory pressures from north that led theTai peoples on the verge of being displaced, some of them migrated southwards[44] where they metthe classical Indianized civilizations of Southeast Asia. According to linguistic and other historical evidence, the southwestward migration of Southwestern Tai-speaking tribes, in particular, from Guangxi took place sometime between the 8th-10th centuries.[45]
The Tais from the north gradually settled in theChao Phraya valley from the tenth century onwards, in lands of theDvaravati culture, assimilating the earlierAustroasiaticMon andKhmer people, as well as coming into contact with theKhmer Empire. The Tais who came to the area of present-day Thailand were engulfed into the Theravada Buddhism of the Mon and the Hindu-Khmer culture andstatecraft. Therefore, the Thai culture is a mixture of Tai traditions with Indic, Mon, and Khmer influences.[46]
Early Thai chiefdoms included theSukhothai Kingdom andSuphan Buri Province. TheLavo Kingdom, which was the center of Khmer culture in Chao Phraya valley, was also the rallying point for the Thais. The Thai were called "Siam" by the Angkorians and they appeared on the bas relief atAngkor Wat as a part of the army of Lavo Kingdom. Sometimes the Thai chiefdoms in the Chao Phraya valley were put under the Angkorian control under strong monarchs (includingSuryavarman II andJayavarman VII) but they were mostly independent.
A new city-state known asAyutthaya covering the areas of central and southern Thailand, named after theIndian city ofAyodhya,[47] was founded byRamathibodi and emerged as the center of the growing Thai empire starting in 1350. Inspired by the then Hindu-basedKhmer Empire, the Ayutthayan empire's continued conquests led to more Thai settlements as the Khmer empire weakened after their defeat atAngkor in 1431. During this period, the Ayutthayans developed a feudal system as various vassal states paid homage to the Ayutthayans kings. Even as Thai power expanded at the expense of the Mon and Khmer, the Thai Ayutthayans faced setbacks at the hands of theMalays atMalacca[citation needed] and were checked by theToungoo ofBurma.
Though sporadic wars continued with the Burmese and other neighbors, Chinese wars with Burma and European intervention elsewhere in Southeast Asia allowed the Thais to develop an independent course by trading with the Europeans as well as playing the major powers against each other in order to remain independent. TheChakkri dynasty underRama I held the Burmese at bay, whileRama II andRama III helped to shape much of Thai society, but also led to Thai setbacks as the Europeans moved into areas surrounding modern Thailand and curtailed any claims the Thai had overCambodia, in dispute withBurma andVietnam. The Thai learned from European traders and diplomats, while maintaining an independent course. Chinese, Malay, and British influences helped to further shape the Thai people who often assimilated foreign ideas, but managed to preserve much of their culture and resisted theEuropean colonization that engulfed their neighbors. Thailand is also the only country in Southeast Asia that was not colonized by European powers in modern history.
The concept of a Thai nation was not developed until the beginning of the 20th century, underPrince Damrong and then KingRama VI (Vajiravudh).[48] Before this era, Thai did not even have a word for 'nation'. KingRama VI also imposed the idea of "Thai-ness"(khwam-pen-thai) on his subjects and strictly defined what was "Thai" and "un-Thai". Authors of this period re-wrote Thai history from anethno-nationalist viewpoint,[49] disregarding the fact that the concept of ethnicity had not played an important role in Southeast Asia until the 19th century.[50][51] This newly developed nationalism was the base of the policy of "Thaification" of Thailand which was intensified after theend of absolute monarchy in 1932 and especially under the rule of Field MarshalPlaek Phibunsongkhram (1938–1944). Minorities were forced to assimilate and the regional differences of northern, northeastern and southern Thailand were repressed in favour of one homogenous "Thai" culture.[52] As a result, many citizens of Thailand cannot differentiate between their nationality(san-chat) and ethnic origin(chuea-chat).[53] It is thus common for descendants ofJek เจ๊ก (Chinese) andKhaek แขก (Indian, Arab, Muslim), after several generations in Thailand, to consider themselves as "chuea-chat Thai" (ethnic Thai) rather than identifying with their ancestors' ethnic identity.[53]
Other peoples living under Thai rule, mainly Mon, Khmer, and Lao, as well as Chinese, Indian or Muslim immigrants continued to be assimilated by Thais, but at the same time they influenced Thai culture, philosophy, economy and politics. In his paperJek pon Lao (1987) (เจ้กปนลาว—Chinese mixed with Lao),Sujit Wongthet, who describes himself in the paper as a Chinese mixed with Lao (Jek pon Lao), claims that the present-day Thai are really Chinese mixed with Lao.[54][55] He insinuates that the Thai are no longer a well-defined race but an ethnicity composed of many races and cultures.[54][53] The biggest and most influential group economically and politically in modern Thailand are theThai Chinese.[56][57]Theraphan Luangthongkum, a Thai linguist of Chinese ancestry, claims that 40% of the contemporary Thai population have some distant Chinese ancestry largely contributed from the descendants of the former successive waves of Han Chinese immigrants that have poured into Thailand over the last several centuries.[58]
A genetic study published in 2021 indicated that the present-dayTai-Kadai speaking groups from different geographic regions in Thailand show different genetic relationships; thenorthern groups (Khon mueang) are closely related to the ethnic groups in southern China, such as theDai people,Palaungic Austroasiatic groups, andAustroasiatic-speakingKinh, as well as theAustronesian-speaking groups fromTaiwan; thenortheastern groups (Thai Isan) are genetically close to the Austroasiatic-speakingKhmu-Katu andKhmer groups, theTai-Kadai-speakingLaotians, andDai, while thecentral andsouthern groups (previously known asSiamese) strongly share genetic profiles with otherTai peoples, pre-existingMon people, and alsoHan Chinese as a result of past migration waves. It is estimated that 40% of Thais in general have at least some distant Chinese ancestry. Southern groups also shown a relationship with theAustronesian-speakingMamanwa and some ethnic groups inMalaysia andIndonesia.[59]
A 2023 study stated that most Kra-Dai speaking populations in Thailand emerged from admixture between Kra-Dai migrants from southern China and local Austroasiatic-speaking populations, with Laos being a gateway for Kra-Dai migration. However, the presence of Dai and Zhuang ancestry in some northern and central Thai populations suggest an alternative route. There is also evidence of bidirectional admixture between southern Thai and Nayu, who show close genetic relationships with Austronesian speaking groups from Island Southeast Asia. For central Thais, there is no evidence of close affinities with Mon, except for two Central Thai individuals from the Potharam district of Ratchaburi province. Aligning with the findings of previous studies, there is evidence of South Asian ancestry in several Thai populations, including central and southern Thai.[60]
The Thais can be broken down into various regional groups with their own regional varieties ofThai. These groups include theCentral Thai (also the standard variety of the language and Culture), theSouthern Thai, theIsan (more closely related to the standardLao of Laos than to standard Thai), theLanna Thai, andYawi/Malay-speakingThai Malays. Within each regions exist multipleethnic groups.Modern Central Thai culture has become more dominant due to official government policy, which was designed to assimilate and unify the disparate Thai in spite of ethnolinguistic and cultural ties between the non-Central-Thai-speaking people and their communities.[48][62][63]
Thai form thesecond largest ethno-linguistic group among Buddhists in the world.[64] The modern Thai are predominantlyTheravada Buddhist and strongly identify their ethnic identity with their religious practices that include aspects of ancestor worship, among other beliefs of the ancientfolklore of Thailand. Thais predominantly (more than 90%) avow themselves Buddhists. Since the rule of KingRamkhamhaeng of Sukhothai and again since the "orthodox reformation" of KingMongkut in the 19th century, it is modeled on the "original"Sri Lankan Theravada Buddhism. The Thais' folk belief however is asyncretic blend of the official Buddhist teachings,animistic elements that trace back to theoriginal beliefs of Tai peoples, andBrahmin-Hindu elements[65] from India, partly inherited from the Hindu Khmer Empire of Angkor.[66]
The belief in local, nature and household spirits, that influence secular issues like health or prosperity, as well asghosts (Thai:phi, ผี) is widespread. It is visible, for example, in so-calledspirit houses(san phra phum) that may be found near many homes.Phi play an important role in local folklore, but also in modernpopular culture, like television series and films. "Ghost films"(nang phi) are a distinct, importantgenre ofThai cinema.[67]
Hinduism has left substantial and present marks on Thai culture. Some Thais worship Hindu gods likeGanesha,Shiva,Vishnu, orBrahma (e.g., at Bangkok's well-knownErawan Shrine). They do not see a contradiction between this practice and their primary Buddhist faith.[68] The Thai national epicRamakien is an adaption of the HinduRamayana. Hindu mythological figures likeDevas,Yakshas,Nagas, gods and their mounts(vahana) characterise the mythology of Thais and are often depicted in Thai art, even as decoration of Buddhist temples.[69] Thailand's national symbolGaruda is taken from Hindu mythology as well.[70]
A characteristic feature of Thai Buddhism is the practice oftham boon (ทำบุญ) ("merit-making"). This can be done mainly by food and in-kind donations to monks, contributions to the renovation and adornment of temples, releasing captive creatures (fish, birds), etc. Moreover, many Thais idolise famous and charismatic monks,[71] who may be credited withthaumaturgy or with the status of a perfected Buddhist saint(Arahant). Other significant features of Thai popular belief areastrology,numerology,talismans andamulets[72] (often images of the revered monks)[73]
Besides Thailand's two million MuslimMalays, there are an additional more than a millionethnic Thais who profess Islam, especially in the south, but also in greater Bangkok. As a result ofmissionary work, there is also a minority of approximately 500,000Christian Thais: Catholics and various Protestant denominations. Buddhist temples in Thailand are characterized by tall golden stupas, and the Buddhist architecture of Thailand is similar to that in other Southeast Asian countries, particularly Cambodia and Laos, with which Thailand shares cultural and historical heritage.
^The total figure is merely an estimation; sum of all the referenced populations below.
^abExonym is generally used to differentiate betweenThai Chinese when they refer to themselves as Thais by nationality or citizenship.[citation needed]
^Xiānluó or Hsien-lo (暹羅) was the Chinese name for Ayutthaya, a kingdom created by the merger ofLavo andSukhothai orSuphannabhumi[37]
^Thai people make up approximately 75–85% population of the country (58 million) if including theSouthern Thai and, more controversially, theNorthern Thai andIsan people, all of which include significant populations of non Tai-Kadai ethnic groups
^Cheesman, P. (1988).Lao textiles: ancient symbols-living art.Bangkok, Thailand: White Lotus Co., Thailand.
^Fox, M. (1997).A history of Laos. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
^Fox, M. (2008).Historical Dictionary of Laos (3rd ed.).Lanham: Scarecrow Press.
^Goodden, C. (1999).Around Lan-na: a guide to Thailand's northern border region from Chiang Mai to Nan. Halesworth, Suffolk: Jungle Books.
^Gehan Wijeyewardene (1990).Ethnic Groups across National Boundaries in Mainland Southeast Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 48.ISBN978-981-3035-57-7.The word 'Thai' is today generally used for citizens of the Kingdom of Thailand, and more specifically for the 'Siamese'.
^Barbara A. West (2009),Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania, Facts on File, p. 794,ISBN978-1-4381-1913-7
^Antonio L. Rappa; Lionel Wee (2006),Language Policy and Modernity in Southeast Asia: Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand, Springer, pp. 114–115
^Baker, Chris and Phongpaichit, Pasuk (2017). "A History of Ayutthaya", p. 27.Cambridge University Press.
^Luo, Wei; Hartmann, John; Li, Jinfang; Sysamouth, Vinya (December 2000)."GIS Mapping and Analysis of Tai Linguistic and Settlement Patterns in Southern China"(PDF).Geographic Information Sciences.6 (2):129–136.Bibcode:2000AnGIS...6..129L.doi:10.1080/10824000009480541.S2CID24199802. RetrievedMay 28, 2013.Abstract. By integrating linguistic information and physical geographic features in aGIS environment, this paper maps the spatial variation of terms connected with wet-rice farming of Tai minority groups in southern China and shows that the primary candidate of origin for proto-Tai is in the region of Guangxi-Guizhou, not Yunnan or the middle Yangtze River region as others have proposed....
^Charles F. Keyes (1997), "Cultural Diversity and National Identity in Thailand",Government policies and ethnic relations in Asia and the Pacific, MIT Press, p. 203
^Tejapira, Kasian (2003), "De-Othering Jek Communists: Rewriting Thai History from the Viewpoint of the Ethno-Ideological Order",Southeast Asia Over Three Generations: Essays Presented to Benedict R. O'G. Anderson, Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program, p. 247
^Thanet Aphornsuvan (1998), "Slavery and Modernity: Freedom in the Making of Modern Siam",Asian Freedoms: The Idea of Freedom in East and Southeast Asia, Cambridge University Press, p. 181
^Chris Baker; Pasuk Phongpaichit (2009),A History of Thailand (Second ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 172–175
^Patit Paban Mishra (2010),The History of Thailand, Greenwood, p. 11
^S.N. Desai (1980),Hinduism in Thai Life, Bombay: Popular Prakashan Private
^Pattana Kitiarsa (2011), "The Horror of the Modern: Violation, Violence and Rampaging Urban Youths in Contemporary Thai Ghost Films",Engaging the Spirit World: Popular Beliefs and Practices in Modern Southeast Asia, Berghahn Books, pp. 200–220
^Patit Paban Mishra (2010),The History of Thailand, Greenwood, pp. 11–12
