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TheShuilu Fahui (Chinese:水陸法會;lit. 'Water and Land Dharma Assembly') is aChinese Buddhist ceremony typically performed with the aim of facilitating the nourishment and ultimate liberation of allsentient beings insaṃsāra. The service is often credited as one of the greatest rituals in Chinese Buddhism, as it is the most elaborate and requires the labor of monastics and temple staff and the financial funding of lay Buddhist sponsors. The full name of the ceremony is theFajie Shengfan Shuilu Pudu Dazhai Shenghui (法界聖凡水陸普度大齋勝會), which translates to "Water and Land Universal Deliverance and Grand Feast Assembly for Saints and Ordinary Sentient Beings in theDharma Realm."
The ceremony is attributed to theEmperor Wu of Liang, who was inspired one night when he had a dream in which a monk advised him to organize a ceremony to help all beings living on land and in the seas to be surfeited from their suffering, hence the name of the rite. Traditions hold that the ritual itself was first composed by Emperor Wu, with guidance from theChan Buddhist master Baozhi (寶志), who is traditionally regarded as an emanation ofShiyimian Guanyin (十一面觀音; lit: "Eleven-Headed Guanyin").[1] The liturgy received further edits and addendums in later periods, most notably by the monks Zhipan (志磐) and Zongze Cijue (宗賾慈覺) during theSong dynasty as well as the monkYunqi Zhuhong (雲棲袾宏) during theMing dynasty.[2]
During theShuilu Fahui, all enlightened and unenlightened beings insaṃsāra are invoked and invited to attend and partake in the physical and spiritual nourishment provided. In this way, the main goal of the ritual is to facilitate the nourishment and ultimate liberation of allsentient beings, includingdevas,asuras and humans. The ritual combines features ofChinese operatic tradition (including a wide range of instrumental music as well as vocal performances), the recitation of varioussūtras and repentance rites similar to otherMahāyāna rituals as well as esotericVajrayāna practices (such as the recitation of esotericmantras of Buddhist divinities and visualization practices). As a result, theShuilu Fahui has been seen by traditional commentators as a union of the various different traditions in Chinese Buddhism, such as such asChan,Esoteric,Pure Land,Tiantai andHuayan.[3]
Traditional records state that theShuilu Fahui ceremony originated during the reign ofEmperor Wu of Liang (464-549), who was historically renowned as a devout patron of Buddhism. According to accounts, Emperor Wu had a dream one night in which a holy monk told him about a ritual called theShuiluGuangda Mingzhai (水陸廣大冥齋, lit: "Grand and Expansive Netherworldly Ceremony for beings of Water and Land") which had the ability to deliver universal salvation to sentient beings in samsara.[4][5] The next day, he consulted with ministers and śramaṇa at court about his dream, but no one had an explanation except for theChan Buddhist master Baozhi (寶志; 418 - 514), who told him to search through the Buddhist canon.[4] In doing so, the Emperor found a scriptural text which recountedĀnanda’s encounter with a ghost king namedJiaomian (焦面; "Scorched Face").[4]
This specific encounter is also described in two later sources that were translated during theTang dynasty (618 - 907): theFoshuo Jiu Mianran Egui Tuoloni Shenzhou Jing[zh] (佛說救面燃餓鬼陀羅尼神咒經; lit "Sūtra Spoken by the Buddha on the Dhāraṇī-spell that Saved the Burning-Face Hungry Ghost") which was translated byŚikṣānanda[zh] between the years 700 - 704, and theFoshuo Jiuba Yankou Egui Tuoluoni Jing[zh] (佛說救拔燄口餓鬼陀羅尼經; lit "Sūtra Spoken by the Buddha on the Dhāraṇī that Rescued the Flaming-Mouth Hungry Ghost") which was translated byAmoghavajra between the years 757 - 770.[6] According to these sūtras,Ānanda once encountered a ghost king named eitherMianran (面燃;lit: "Burning Face") orYankou (燄口; lit: "Flaming Mouth") that warned him about his impending death and rebirth in the realm of hungry ghosts which would happen unless he was able to give one measure of food and drink the size of a bushel used inMagadha to each of the one hundred thousandnayutas of hungry ghosts and other beings.[6] The encounter prompted Ānanda to begŚākyamuni Buddha for a way to avert his fate, at which point the Buddha revealed a ritual and adhāraṇī that he had been taught in a past life when he was a brahmin by theBodhisattvaAvalokiteśvara, who is known in East Asia asGuanyin (觀音菩薩).[6] Part of the ritual involved the brief invocation of the names of four Buddhas.[6] According to the sūtra, the performance of the ritual would not only feed the hungry ghosts but would also ensure the longevity of the performing ritualist.[6] The sūtra ends with Ānanda performing the rite according to the Buddha’s instructions and avoiding the threat of rebirth into the realm of the hungry ghosts.[6] Buddhist traditions hold that he eventually achieved longevity and attained the state ofarhathood.
Using this text, the Emperor composed the ritual, which took three years to complete.[4] In the year 505, after receiving advice of Baozhi regarding where to hold the ritual, he summoned another eminent monk, thevinaya masterSengyou, and personally took part in the first performance at Zexin Temple (澤心寺), now namedJinshan Temple (金山寺), on the island of Jinshan nearZhenjiang in modern-dayJiangsu.[4] Traditional accounts go on to state that the text was lost in the followingChen dynasty (557-589) andSui dynasty (581-618).[5][4]
According to traditional accounts, during the Xianheng era (670–674) of theTang dynasty (618-907) period, theChan master Daoying (道英) of Fahai Temple (法海寺) in the capital city ofChang'an was visited by the spirit ofKing Zhuangxiang ofQin, who requested that he reinstate theShuilu Fahui ceremony and told him that a copy of the ritual texts that had been lost were in the possession of a monk named Yi Ji (義濟) at Dajue Temple (大覺寺).[7] After retrieving them, Daoying oversaw the revival of the ceremony and conducted its first performance at Shanbei Temple.[7]
Various references to performances ofShuilu Fahui ceremonies during the Tang dynasty were recorded in the form of steles. For instance, in his compendiumBaoke Congbian (寶刻叢編, lit: "Collection of Treasured Carvings"), the author Chen Si (陳思) wrote about a stele inJiankang (modern-day Nanjing) that was made in the year 833 which he labelled a "Tang-era Inscription on Performing a Water and Land Non-Discriminatory Ceremony" (唐修水陸無遮齋題).[8] He also wrote of another stele nearHuzhou that was made in the year 863 that he labelled "Records of the Re-establishment of the Society for the Ceremony of the Netherworld and the Living World at Xingguo Temple" (重置興國寺冥陽齋社記).[9] Another Tang-era stele called the "Record of the Water and Land Assembly of the Eastern Nengren Temple" (東能仁院水陸會記) located inWuhu is mentioned in another book, theYudi Beiji Mu (輿地碑記目, lit: "Compendium of Geographic Inscriptions"), by the author Wang Xiangzhi (王象之).[10]
Historical records also document the development ofshuilu ritual paintings during this time.Shuilu ritual paintings are a special style of traditionalChinese paintings based onBuddhist divinities and all other figures inBuddhist cosmology that are invoked into the ritual space during theShuilu Fahui ceremony. These paintings are typically enshrined and arranged at various altars during the ceremony in special formations according to the ritual manual, sometimes forming a particularmaṇḍala (such as is the case with the altar for theTen Wisdom Kings). While the majority of these paintings usually depict Buddhist deities, a number of them also depicts non-Buddhist figures such as Taoist gods as well as the spirits of past emperors, officials and commoners since they are also invoked during the ceremony, being counted among the unenlightened sentient beings ofsaṃsāra that are invited to the ceremony to partake in the nourishment. In theYizhou minghua lu (益州名畫錄, lit: "Record of Famous Artists fromYizhou") by the Song dynasty writer Huang Xiufu (黃休復), he records the biography of a Tang dynasty painter named Zhang Nanben (張南本), who was active in Chengdu in Sichuan from 880s onwards and who specialized in paintings of Buddhist figures, dragon kings, gods and ghosts. The biography states that, uponEmperor Xizong's return to theTang capital ofChang'an following the end of theHuang Chao Rebellion, the prefectural magistrate Chen (府主陳太師) established a Water and Land Cloister (水陸院) at Baoli Temple (寶歷寺) and hired Nanben to paint over 120 paintings of the spirits of Heaven and Earth (天神地祗), theThree Officials andFive Emperors (三官五帝),Leigong andDianmu (雷公電母), the spirits of mountains and marshes (嶽瀆神仙) and well as past emperors and kings (自古帝王).[11]
After the Tang dynasty,Shuilu Fahui ceremonies continued to grow in popularity and were widely practiced in the succeedingSong dynasty (960-1279) by monastics, and historical records proliferated with numerous accounts of such ceremonies.
In particular, it was relatively common for the imperial family and government to commission performances of the ritual, especially in times of conflict or upon the death of a political figure. Various Song-era historical documents such as theXu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian (續資治通鑑長編), an extensive chronicle of the history of theNorthern Song dynasty in 980 volumes by the historianLi Tao (李燾), and voluminous court records as well as miscellaneous writings by officials likeWang Anshi (王安石, 1021-1086) and Qi Chongli (綦崇禮, 1083-1142), make numerous mentions of multiple performances of theShuilu Fahui ceremony being commissioned by the imperial families of both the Song dynasty and its contemporaneous rivalJin dynasty (1115-1234). The following are a few examples. Both the SongEmperor Yingzong (1032 -1067) and the SongEmpress Cao (1016-1079) were commemorated with performances of theShuilu Fahui ceremony upon their deaths.[12][13] In 1081, the SongEmperor Shenzong sponsored aShuilu Fahui ceremony at a temple inGuizhou (桂州) for the spirits of fallen soldiers and civilians fromYongzhou,Qinzhou andLianzhou who had perished during theSong–Đại Việt war.[14] In 1083,Emperor Shenzong commissioned anotherShuilu Fahui ceremony at a temple inMingzhou (明州, modern-dayNingbo) that was held on the eve of a one-month mourning ceremony in commemoration of the death ofKing Munjong (1046-1083) ofGoryeo.[15] In 1085, threeShuilu Fahui ceremonies (one taking place on theDongzhi Festival, one taking place onChinese New Year and one taking place on theHanshi Festival) were commissioned and held in the Funing Palace (福寧殿) to commemorate the death ofEmperor Shenzong.[16][17][18] The famous poetSu Shi (蘇軾,1037-1101), also widely known as Su Dongpo (蘇東坡), wrote three separate poems, one for each occasion.
For the performance during theDongzhi Festival, he wrote:
伏以:
聖神陟降，釋梵後先。
適更來復之辰，茂薦往生之福。
虔修凈供，仰導真遊。
Be it reverently declared:
The enlightened ones and the gods ascend and descend, withŚakra andBrahma at the front and back.
Now that the cyclical day of return has come again, we offer splendid blessings for rebirth in thePure Land.
Devoutly we prepare pure offerings, to respectfully guide him to True Enjoyment.
For the performance during theChinese New Year, he wrote:
伏以:
棄黃屋以上賓，莫追風馭。
抱烏號而永慕，再歷春朝。
敢仗勝緣，式開凈供。
仰頌義堯之德，永追梵釋之遊。
Be it reverently declared:
Having forsaken the August Residence to join the exalted guests, his swift chariot can no longer be pursued.
Clinging to the renowned bow Wuhao^α while yearning forever, we are fated to experience yet another spring morning.
Daring to rely on excellent karmic bonds, we supplicate with pure offerings.
Praising the virtues of justEmperor Yao, forevering chasing the Enjoyment ofŚakra andBrahma.
For the performance during theHanshi Festival, he wrote:
伏以:
甚雨疾風，感春律之將變。
鉆燧改火，悼喪期之不留。
爰啟凈筵，以資冥福。
願登大覺，永濟函生。
Be it reverently declared:
Torrential rains and ferocious winds, a reminder of the impending change of spring's rhythm.
Drilling flint to start a fire, we grieve that the period of mourning will not linger.
Thus we supplicate a pure feast, to offer netherworldly blessings.
May he attain great enlightenment, and provide eternal aid to all living beings
In 1093, at least 3Shuilu Fahui ceremonies were held for the SongEmpress Gao (1032–1093) after her death at her residence, Chongqing Palace (崇慶宮) and at Fusheng Chan Cloister (福聖禪院, modern-day Nanchan Temple[zh] (南禪寺) inWuxi).[19] In 1131 and 1132, the SongEmperor Gaozong (1107-1187) commissioned threeShuilu Fahui ceremonies to commemorate the death ofEmpress Dowager Meng (1073-1131), and the poet Qi Chongli (綦崇礼) composed poetic prayer verses for a few of the occasions.[20] The Empress Dowager had earlier been made reagent of a short-livedpuppet state by theJin empire when they invaded the Song capital ofKaifeng, but had shown loyalty toEmperor Gaozong by ending her regency and declaring him the rightful Emperor after he returned to the city in 1127. In 1134,Emperor Gaozong sponsored anotherShuilu Fahui ceremony to provide relief to the spirits of fallen soldiers after the generalHan Shizhong defeated a joint-invasion by forces from the Jin empire and its puppet state Pseudo-Qi at Chengzhou (承州, modern-dayGaoyou inJiangsu).[21] After the JinEmperor Taizong (1075-1135) ascended the throne in 1123, he invited a sandalwood statue to Minzhong Temple (憫忠寺, modern-dayFayuan Temple) inBeijing and held aShuilu Fahui ceremony for over seven days and nights.[22]
Outside the imperial families,Shuilu Fahui ceremonies were also widely commissioned and sponsored by private individuals including nobles, government officials and civilians. For instance, various Song era inscriptions on niches and statues at theDazu Rock Carvings make references to multiple performances ofShuilu Fahui ceremonies, with the site itself possibly functioning as a ritual space.[23][24][25] The government official Li Guang (李光, 1078-1159) wrote about sponsoring a performance of the ceremony at Bao'en Chan Temple (報恩禪寺) for some goats that he had raised as pets after they had been offered to him as gifts.[26] Another example is the famous poetSu Shi (蘇軾,1037-1101) who was known for having sponsored aShuilu Fahui ceremony and who even wrote a set of sixteen poems praising the sixteen classes of beings summoned during the ceremony titledShuilu faxing zan (水陸法像贊, "Praises for the Dharma Images of Water and Land").[27] Su Shi's brother, Su Che (蘇轍, 1039-1112), also performed aShuilu Fahui ceremony after a well beside a tomb ran dry.[28]Shuilu Fahui ceremonies were also often commissioned by officials to mark the construction of structures such as dikes and bridges, as well as for summoning rain and controlling winds.[29][30][31]Shuilu Fahui ceremonies became so popular that they even featured heavily in vernacular literary fiction of the time, such as theYijian zhi (夷堅志) where performances of the ritual featured in multiple stories.[32] Biographies of Song era monastics also indicated that some monks became known for conducting the ceremony. In theSong gaoseng zhuan (宋高僧傳, lit: "Biographies of Eminent Monks of the Song dynasty") by the scholar monk Zanning[zh] (贊寧, 919-1001), he records two monks who were noted for conductingShuilu Fahui ceremonies. The first was the monk Zunhai (遵誨, 865-945), a monk who specialized in theLotus Sūtra and theAvataṃsaka Sūtra, who was noted as having "repeatedly performed Water and Land rituals to offer Dharma-food to spirits and ghosts, encouraging all on the dignified practice of bodhicitta".[33] The second was the monk Shouzhen (守真, 894-971), a monk fromSichuan who was known for practicingTantric,Pure Land andHuayan Buddhism and whom some consider the Eighth Patriarch of the Huayan Buddhist tradition.[34][35] He was described as having "opened the Water and Land ritual space twenty times" in his lifetime.[35]
It was during the Song era when the earliest still-existing version known of the ritual manual for theShuilu Fahui ceremony was compiled. This version, known as theShuilu yi (水陸儀, lit: "Water and Land manual"), was compiled by a Sichuaneseupāsaka and named Yang E (楊鍔) and was widely circulated during the during the Xining period (1068-1077) of the Song dynasty.[36] While much of the ritual manual has been lost, three fascicles survive, namely theChu ru daochang xu jian shuilu yi (初入道場敘建水陸意, lit: "Upon First Entering the Ritual Space to Explain the Meaning of Establishing the Water and Land Altars"), theXuanbai zhaoqing shangtang bawei shengzhong (宣白召請上堂八位聖眾, lit: "Announcement to Invite the Noble Multitudes to the Eight Seats of the Upper Hall") and theXuanbai zhaoqing xiatang bawei shengfan (宣白召請下堂八位聖凡, lit: "Announcement to Invite the Divine and the Mundane to the Eight Seats of the Lower Hall").[36] In addition, Yang E also penned theShuilu dazhai lingji ji (水陸大齋靈跡記, lit: "Record of the Miraculous Events of the Great Ceremony of Water and Land "), the earliest surviving account of the historical development of theShuilu Fahui ceremony.[4][7] In 1096, the monk Zongze Cijue (宗賾慈覺, active 11th-12th century), who was known for practicingPure Land as well asYunmen Chan Buddhism, finished a four volume revision of Yang E'sShuilu yi which he also titled theShuilu yi (水陸儀, lit: "Water and Land manual").[37] While much of this text is not extant, it was widely circulated during theJin (1115–1234) andYuan (1271-1368) dynasties and formed the basis for another laterShuilu Fahui ritual text during theMing dynasty (1368-1644) called theTiandi mingyang shuilu yiwen (天地冥陽水陸儀文, lit: "Manual for the Ritual of All Beings of Heaven and Earth, This World and the Netherworld, and Water and Land").[37][38][39]
In the late-Song period, another version of the ritual manual for theShuilu Fahui ceremony, which was to become especially influential later, was compiled by the Tiantai monk Zhipan (志磐, 1220-1275), the author of theFozu tongji (佛祖統紀, lit: "Chronicle of the Buddhas and Patriarchs"), a massive encyclopedic historiographical text in 54 volumes detailing the history of Buddhism in China from aTiantai perspective.[40][41][39] He recorded the events leading up to his compilation of this new ritual manual in theFozu tongji.[42] According to his account, a Song politician named Shi Hao (史浩, 1106-1194) once visited the island ofJinshan (whereEmperor Wu of Liang participated in the first ever performance of theShuilu Fahui ceremony according to traditional accounts) and admired theShuilu Fahui ceremonies being carried out there. Shi Hao then donated a hundredmu of land on Mount Yuebo (月波山) and established a "Four-season Water and Land Altar"(四時水陸) there.[42] He also personally composed ceremonial texts and had them inscribed in stone in the temple walls, as well as compiled and printed the ritual texts in the temple.[42] His efforts impressed the SongEmperor Xiaozong, who bestowed an imperial inscription upon the temple that read: "UnobstructedShuilubodhimaṇḍa" (水陸無礙道場).[42] Shi Hao's liturgy was used by up to three thousand monastics and laypeople at a monastery near Mount Yuebo called Zunjiao Temple (尊教寺), who took on the Mount Yuebo tradition of conducting universal salvation rituals during the four seasons.[42] Eventually, some within Zunjiao Temple's community wished to adjust some aspects of the original liturgy, and so requested Zhipan, who resided at the temple, to work on a new liturgical text.[42] Utilizing older versions of the ritual manual, Zhipan eventually finished his version in six volumes called theShuilu yigui (水陸儀軌, lit: "Ritual Manual of Water and Land").[42][43]
Shuilu Fahui ceremonies continued to remain popular under the succeedingYuan dynasty (1271-1368), being commissioned on multiple occasions by various Emperors, who were fond of conducting Buddhist rituals.[44][39] The following are a few examples. In 1316, under the YuanEmperor Renzong (1285-1320), the imperial court held a massiveShuilu Fahui ceremony atJinshan Temple, in which 1500 monks participated.[44][45] In 1321, the YuanEmperor Yingzong (1302-1323) commissioned over six temples: Wan'an Temple (萬安 Qingshou Temple(慶壽) Sheng'an Temple(聖安) Puqing Temple (普慶寺) inBeijing,Jinshan Temple inZhenjiang and Wansheng Youguo Temple (萬聖祐國寺, modern-day Nanshan Temple[zh]) to carry out a large-scale Shuilu Fahui ceremony which lasted over seven days and seven nights.[44][46] In 1328, The YuanEmperor Taiding (1293-1328) commissioned another Shuilu Fahui ceremony which lasted seven days and nights as well.[47]
During the succeedingMing dynasty (1368-1644),Shuilu Fahui ceremonies became even more popular with both the imperial court and private citizenry. For instance, starting from the first year (1368) of the reign of the MingHongwu Emperor (1328-1398) until the fifth year (1407) of the reign of the MingYongle Emperor (1360-1424), the Ming imperial court consecutively held several large scaleShuilu Fahui ceremonies atJiangshan, historically known as theJiangshan Fahui (蔣山法會, lit: "Dharma Assembly at Jiangshan"), with invitations being sent to nearly every prominent monk from the late Yuan to early Ming period.[39][48][49] The main purpose of performing these ceremonies was to provide salvation to the spirits of both soldiers and civilians who had perished during wartime, thereby promoting political stability and peace.[39][49] Similar to earlier dynasties, the popularity of the ritual and its integral nature in the lives of the populace during this period is evident by its appearances in vernacular literature, such as the popular late-Ming novelJinpingmei (金瓶梅).[39] According to Hong Jingchun (洪錦淳), a notable scholar in the history ofShuilu Fahui rituals, the number of Yuan and Ming dynasty eraShuilu Fahui performances recorded in historical texts in theChinese Buddhist canon make up only one percent of the actual total number ofShuilu Fahui ceremonies performed during this period.[44]
In the early decades of theMing dynasty (1368-1644), another version of theShuilu Fahui ceremonial liturgy was published inShanxi by the monk Yijin (義金) (active circa 1368–1424) called theTiandi mingyang shuilu yiwen (天地冥陽水陸儀文, lit: "Manual for the Ritual of All Beings of Heaven and Earth, This World and the Netherworld, and Water and Land"). This liturgy, which was likely based on the earlier Song dynasty manual edited by Zongze, belongs to a category of variantShuilu Fahui ritual manuals called the "Bei shuilu" (北水陸, lit: "NorthernShuilu"; first coined by the eminent Ming dynasty monkOuyi Zhixu) as they seem to have preserved the practices ofShuilu Fahui rituals that were popular in North and West China.[50][51][39] This manual demonstrates highly eclectic features, combining elements acrossChinese Esoteric Buddhism,Taoism, andfolk beliefs.[39] It was heavily influenced by theVajradhātu Esoteric tradition and involved building an array of altars that largely resembles the Vajradhātu maṇḍala, as well as visualizations of seed-syllables and the conferment ofsamaya precepts.[39] This version of the ritual manual was widely used to performShuilu Fahui ceremonies up until the late-Qing dynasty (1644-1912).[50]
In the late-Ming period, the eminent monkYunqi Zhuhong (1535-1615), who is the Eighth Patriarch of theChinese Pure Land tradition, published another version of theShuilu Fahui ritual manual.[44][39] His effort was part of a Buddhist revival movement which strove to reinvigorate Buddhist monastic life and practices through means such as reformation of monastic discipline as well as standardization of ritual liturgies.[39][52] Choosing the Song dynasty manual edited by Zhipan (theShuilu yigui) as the foundation, Zhuhong revised and refined the liturgy, placing particular focus on stressing ritual order and etiquette.[44][39] His edition, titled theFajie shengfan shuilu shenghui xiuzhai yigui (法界聖凡水陸勝會修齋儀軌, lit: "Ritual Manual for Practicing the Ritual of the Water and Land Grand Assembly for Saints and Ordinary Sentient Beings in theDharma Realm"), belongs to a category of variantShuilu Fahui ritual manuals called the "Nan shuilu" (南水陸, lit: "SouthernShuilu"), which includes Zhipan's version of the ritual manual.[44] Zhuhong's version of the liturgy was also widely used throughout the Ming and Qing dynasties and forms the core text of the most popular version of theShuilu Fahui liturgy in contemporary times.[44][39]
The ceremony remained an integral part of the Chinese Buddhist ritual field under the succeedingQing dynasty (1644-1912), with both theBei shuilu andNan shuilu variants of the ceremony continuing to be performed.
During the reign of the QingDaoguang Emperor (1782-1850), the monk Yirun (儀潤) from Zhenji Temple (真寂寺) in Hangzhou edited and expanded Zhuhong's version of the ritual manual by supplementing explanations on certain details as well as adding more content regarding the ritual's practice and rules, resulting in a six-volume work titled theFajie shengfan shuilu shenghui xiuzhai yigui (法界聖凡水陸普度大齋勝會儀軌會本, lit: "Compiled Ritual Manual for Practicing the Ritual of the Water and Land Grand Assembly for Saints and Ordinary Sentient Beings in theDharma Realm").[44][39] Later, theupāsaka Zhiguan (咫觀, active circa 1862–1908), also known as Zheng Yingfang (鄭應房), composed extensive commentaries regarding Zhuhong's version of the ritual manual, compiling them into a nine-volume work titled theFajie shengfan Shuilu dazhai puli daochang xingxiang tonglun (法界聖凡水陸大齋普利道場性相通論, lit: "Comprehensive Treatise on the Nature and Characteristics of the Dharma Realm of Saints and Mortals in the Water-Land Great Retreat and Universal Beneficence Assembly").[44][39] He also wrote another text based on theShuilu Fahui ceremony titled theShuilu daochang falun baochan (水陸道場法輪寶懺 ,lit: "Precious Repentance of the Dharma Wheel for the Water-Land Assembly") which had ten volumes.[44][39]
In the late-Qing dynasty, just before the founding of theRepublic of China, the monk Fayu (法裕) also edited Zhuhong's version of the ritual, providing additional instructional details regarding the rituals to be performed at the Outer Altars as well as other ceremonial practices.[44][39] In addition, a new preface for this version was written by the eminent monkYinguang (1862-1940), who is the Thirteenth Patriarch of theChinese Pure Land tradition.[44][39] This four-volume version of the ritual manual, titled theShuilu yigui huiben (水陸儀軌會本, lit: "Compiled Ritual Manual of Water and Land"), remains the most widely utilized version in modern contemporary Chinese Buddhist practice throughoutChina,Taiwan,Singapore,Malaysia and otheroverseas Chinese communities.[44][39]
In contemporary practice, the entire ritual is typically structurally divided into two types of rituals: those conducted at the Inner (內壇) and those conducted at the Outer Altars (外壇).[39][53] In most cases, there is only a single Inner Altar while there are multiple Outer Alters. The Inner Altar is traditionally considered the most sacred and important part of the ritual and is where the most central rites are performed, so access to it is often restricted.[39] In contrast, rituals at the Outer Altars are typically open to all participants.[39] The primary focus is the Inner Altar, which infers the collective merits of the Outer Altars.
The Inner Altar is the core of the entire liberation rite and the most elaborate of all the other shrines. The Inner Altar comprises twenty-four smaller altars: twelve for the higher beings and twelve for the lower beings. Each altar has their own classification ranging from otherBuddhas,Bodhisattvas,Wisdom Kings, sages, andcelestial protectors, down to the lower beings dwelling in thesix realms of rebirth: lesser devas,demigods, humans, animals,hungry ghosts,hell beings, and deceased individuals. Each altar has a set ofpaper plaques decorated with paper flowers and talismans which contain the core essence of the invited spirit and a painting that describes who each of the beings are, along with a verse taken from the Inner Altar ritual text. Notably, large numbers ofshuilu ritual paintings of all these being invited to the ceremony are typically enshrined at the Inner Alter.Lastly, tables are set out for the monastics and sponsors to use, complete with kneelers, the ritual text for reference, ahandheld censer, and plates with flowers to use when inviting beings.
As it requiresdeep concentration among all of the monastics, sponsors, and guests attending, many temples usually restrict public access to the shrine so that only high ranking and assigned monks, sponsors, and special guests are invited to enter when the ritual is not in session. When a ritual session begins, apart from any pressing emergencies, no one is allowed to leave the shrine until its completion, as it is considered disrespectful to the invited beings. Offerings of food, beverages and incense, chanting and reciting of secret mantras and various sūtras, transmitting precepts and bowing in repentance on behalf of the higher and lower beings are the core procedures in the Inner Altar.
The Outer Altars usually consists of separate halls in the temple, all of which are open for public participation to help create merit for the work being done in the Inner Altar. Typically, this grouping consists of a total of six or seven altars, each focusing on different scriptures and rituals, namely:
Some individual temples or Buddhist organizations are also known to add additional altars focusing on other types of rituals and scriptures.[5][54] Some examples include:
Before the ceremony can take place, a purification of the entire temple or monastery space must be completed, usually presided by the abbot or elder monastics. Once it is finished, the outer and Inner Altars are opened and all will simultaneously start their own service. Even as the ritual in both the inner and Outer Altars are being held throughout the day and night, the routine morning and evening sessions of chanting and meditation in the monastery or temple are not neglected; some sponsors may choose to stay in retreat at the monastery during that time to join the daily sessions.
The ritual at the Inner Altar begins with a series of preparatory work, including setting up the altar as well as purifying the ritual space.[39] This is followed by the invocation of various protective deities and their attendants, including theUcchuṣma, all theTen Wisdom Kings, theTwenty-Four Protective Deities and theEight Legions of Devas and Nagas via visualizations and the chanting ofmantras.[39][53] Both the BuddhaMahāvairocana and BodhisattvaGuanyin are then invited to the ritual space via visualization chanting of mantras in order to empower incantatory water, which is then used to purify and seal the ritual space.[53] Later, ‘talisman-holding messengers’ (持符使者) are dispatched to invite all beings in the realm of ten directions to the ceremony.[39][53] In the rest of the ritual at the Inner Altar, offerings are made to all the assembled beings and Buddhist teachings and precepts are conferred on the spirits of the dead.[53] At the end, the merits of the ritual are dedicated to all sentient beings and the invited assembly of beings are sent off.[53]
At the Outer Altars, a variety of rituals are performed, such as repentance rites (懺悔),gongfo zhaitian rites (供佛齋天) where offerings are made to the Triple Gem and deities, tantricYujia Yankou rites (瑜伽燄口) for the nourishment and salvation ofhungry ghosts, as well as the reciting of various major sūtras inChinese Buddhism.[3]
The inner altar section consists of the following subsections:
While the Inner Altar is conducting the ritual, separate shrines will also conduct their own sessions for reciting sūtra texts. Because of the large requirement of sūtra texts and rituals, the responsibility is often divided among the invited monastic Sangha. Therefore, having one monastic reciting a text will count toward having one required text recited.
The required texts for the Outer Altars as suggested by Chan Master Baozhi are the following:
In addition, during the duration of the liberation rite, one ritual session is held in the early morning for offering to theTriple Gem andTwenty-Four Guardian Deities, and five tantricYujia Yankou ritual sessions are held at night for hungry ghosts. Some temples and monasteries may elect to include more than the prescribed texts listed.
TheShuilu Fahui ceremony is common inMainland China andHong Kong, where many temples hold it at least once a year on particular structured dates as part of a fixed yearly cycle of festivals.[61][3] In modern times, it has become usual for some temples to prepare months or years in advance by having the monastics practice and master the ritual's proceedings ahead of time. The ceremony is also popular in Chinese communities outside Mainland China, such asTaiwan where various temples have heldShuilu Fahui ceremonies every year, sometimes in the name of praying for the country and raising funds.[62]
Beyond its religious significance, theShuilu Fahui ceremony also provides an avenue for monasteries to demonstrate social engagement with the public and engage in charity works. Because of the ceremony's exquisite and very detailed ritual procedure, it often requires a non-trivial amount of funds to prepare and hold. Such funds are usually raised through sponsorships and donations from lay followers and practitioners. In many cases, funds raised from donations to temples for a givenShuilu Fahui ceremony are donated to various types of social welfare organizations.[3][63][64]
Because holding aShuilu Fahui ceremony might also affect a temple financially in some cases, this can be seen as a way of demonstrating skillful means by showing the importance of the concept ofanatta, or non-self, in Buddhism, while still dedicating merits to relieve suffering in all beings.
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