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Śāstra (Sanskrit:शास्त्र,romanized: Śāstrapronounced[ɕaːstrɐ]) is aSanskrit word that means "precept, rules, manual, compendium, book or treatise" in a general sense.[1] The word is generally used as a suffix in theIndian literature context, for technical or specialized knowledge in a defined area of practice.[2]
Śāstra has a similar meaning to English-logy, e.g. ecology,psychology, meaning scientific and basic knowledge on a particular subject. Examples in terms of modern neologisms include
In Western literature,Śāstra is sometimes spelled asSastra,[4] reflecting a misunderstanding of the IAST symbol 'ś', which corresponds to the English 'sh'.
The wordŚāstra literally means "that which has been instructed/decreed", from the root √śās- which means "instruction/decree" combined with theṣṭra-suffix.[5][6]
Śāstra commonly refers to a treatise or text on a specific field of knowledge. In earlyVedic literature, the word referred to any precept, rule, teaching, ritual instruction or direction.[1] In late and post Vedic literature ofHinduism,Śāstra referred to any treatise, book or instrument of teaching, any manual or compendium on any subject in any field of knowledge, including religious.[1] It is often a suffix, added to the subject of the treatise, such as
InBuddhism, a "śāstra" is often a commentary written at a later date to explain an earlier scripture orsutra. For example, Yutang Lin says that a text written by him and not given by Buddha, cannot be called a "Sūtra"; it is called a "Śāstra". In Buddhism, Buddhists are allowed to offer their theses as long as they are consistent with the Sūtras, and those are called "Śāstras."[8]
InJainism, the term means the same as inHinduism. An example of Jaina Śāstra is the 12th-centuryYoga Śāstra of Hemchandracharya.[9]
Śāstra is sometimes the root of compounded Sanskrit words. A custodian ofŚāstra, for example, is calledŚāstradhāri (Sanskrit: शास्त्रधारी).[10]
The term is found in several passages of the Rigveda (2nd millennium BCE), such as in hymn VIII.33.16.
नहि षस्तव नो ममशास्त्रे अन्यस्य रण्यति ।
यो अस्मान्वीर आनयत् ॥१६॥
In this Rigvedic verse, the term means rule or instruction.
The Maitri Upanishad (mid to late 1st millennium BCE), similarly, mentions the materialistCharvakas and Brihaspati who disagreed that the Vedas are a treatise of knowledge, proposing relativism instead, in the following passage:[12]
बृहस्पतिर्वै शुक्रो भूत्वेन्द्रस्याभयायासुरेभ्यः क्षयायेमामविद्यामसृजत्
तया शिवमशिवमित्युद्दिशन्त्यशिवं शिवमिति वेदादिशास्त्रहिंसकधर्माभिध्यानमस्त्विति
— Maitri Upanishad 7.9,[12][13]
The term is found in other Upanishads as well as inBhagavad Gita such as in verses 15.20, 16.23–16.24, and 17.1.[14]
TheṚigvedaprātiśākhya (11.36; 14.30) uses the termShastra to refer to theprātiśākhya tradition.Kātyāyana,Patañjali andPāṇini'sAṣṭādhyāyī use the term. Similarly, theVedāṅgajyotiṣa uses the term to refer to astronomical treatises. The termvedāṅgaśāstrāṇām, refers to theśāstra of theVedāṅgas.
The term "śāstra" is found inYaska'sNirukta (1.2, 14), where the reference is toNirukta (etymology). An early use of the termśāstra with reference to the literature ondharma is found in thevārttika ofKātyāyana, who uses the expressiondharmaśāstra[15]
Shastras are predominantly post-Vedic literature, that is after about 500 BCE. However, it is unclear when various Shastras were composed and completed. The authenticity of the manuscripts is also unclear, as many versions of the same text exist, some with major differences.Patrick Olivelle, credited with a 2005 translation of Manu Dharma-sastra, published by the Oxford University Press, states the concerns inpostmodern scholarship about the presumed authenticity and reliability of manuscripts as follows (abridged):[16]
TheMDh (Manusmriti) was the first Indian legal text introduced to the western world through the translation of Sir William Jones in 1794. (...) All the editions of theMDh, except for Jolly's, reproduce the text as found in the [Calcutta] manuscript containing the commentary of Kulluka. I have called this as the "vulgate version". It was Kulluka's version that has been translated repeatedly: Jones (1794), Burnell (1884), Buhler (1886) andDoniger (1991). (...) The belief in the authenticity of Kulluka's text was openly articulated by Burnell (1884, xxix): "There is then no doubt that the textus receptus, viz., that of Kulluka Bhatta, as adopted in India and by European scholars, is very near on the whole to the original text."
This is far from the truth. Indeed, one of the great surprises of my editorial work has been to discover how few of the over fifty manuscripts that I collated actually follow the vulgate in key readings.
— Patrick Olivelle, Manu's Code of Law (2005)[16]
The literature of late 1st millennium BCE such asArthashastra,[17] and Shastras of various fields of knowledge from the early 1st millennium period is of great interest as it helped the emergence of diverse schools and the spread of Indian religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism in and outsideSouth Asia.[3][18][19]
The shastras are both descriptive and prescriptive. Among the various Shastras, Manu's code of law has been among the most studied as the colonial British government attempted to establish different laws in British India based onSharia for Muslims and Manu's code of law.[20][21][22]
The shastras are not consistent or single-consensus documents. Dharma-sastras, for example, contain opposing views and contradictory theories. This is in part because they represent an ideal of human behaviour, while at the same time recognising the need to account for likely failings. The shastras do not present life as it was lived. Rather they reveal an idea of what life should be. The shastra texts constitute one of the great bodies of literature of the ancient world.[23]
Sutras are another genre of Indian texts that emerged in the 1st millennium BCE, particularly after the 600 BCE.[24]Sutra (literally "binding thread") denotes a type of literary composition distinct from Shastra. In Sanskrit, "sutra" typically referred to one or moreaphorisms; hence sutras use short, aphoristic, evocative statements. In contrast, a Shastra is typically longer, with more detail and explanations. An example of a Sutra isPatanjali'sYogasutras (considered a classic Hindu treatise), while an example of Shastra isHemachandra's Yogasastra (considered a classicSvetambara Jain treatise), both onyoga.[25]
Shastras and Sutras are among the numerous other genres of literature that have survived fromancient andmedieval India. Other genres includeVedas,Upanishads,Vedangas,Itihasa,Puranas,Bhasyas, andSubhashitas.[26]
| Topic | Name of Shastra | Authorship Date | Author | Language | Description/Comments/References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Architecture | Vastu Shastra | Ancient | Various | Sanskrit | Treatise on architecture and design. |
| Science (Aviation) | Vaimānika Shāstra | Early 20th century | Unknown | Sanskrit | A text on "science of aeronautics". |
| Religion & Law | Dharma Shastra | 1st millennium BCE | Various | Sanskrit | Theological texts on Hindu Dharma, with over 100 different versions.[27] |
| Eroticism | Kamashastra | Ancient | Various | Sanskrit | Texts related to love and sexuality. |
| Philosophy | Yoga Vasistha | Ancient | Valmiki | Sanskrit | Philosophical discourse between Sage Vasistha and Lord Rama. |
| Philosophy | Moksopaya | 10th century | Unknown | Sanskrit | Philosophical text, precursor to Yoga Vasistha. |
| Economics & Politics | Artha Shastra | 4th century BCE | Kautilya (Chanakya) | Sanskrit | Treatise on statecraft, economic policy, and military strategy. |
| Performing Arts | Natya Shastra | 200 BCE – 200 CE | Bharata Muni | Sanskrit | Treatise on drama, dance, and music. |
| Astronomy | Surya Siddhanta | Ancient | Unknown | Sanskrit | An astronomical text with planetary calculations. |
| Buddhism | Mahayana Buddhist Shastras | Various | Various | Sanskrit | Treatises related to Mahayana Buddhism. |
| Palmistry & Physiognomy | Samudrika Shastra | Ancient | Unknown | Sanskrit | Text on palmistry, face reading, and body analysis. |
| Sculpture & Iconography | Shilpa Shastra | Ancient | Various | Sanskrit | Guidelines on sculpture and temple architecture. |
| Philosophy |
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