Sharifian Caliphate | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1924–1925 | |||||||||
 Coat of arms | |||||||||
 Map with the kingdom in green and the current region in red. | |||||||||
| Status | Empire | ||||||||
| Capital | Mecca(de facto) | ||||||||
| Common languages | Arabic | ||||||||
| Religion | Sunni Islam | ||||||||
| Government | Caliphate | ||||||||
| Sharifian Caliph | |||||||||
• 1924–1931 | Hussein bin Ali[a] | ||||||||
| Historical era | Interwar period | ||||||||
| 3 March 1924 | |||||||||
| 19 December 1925 | |||||||||
• Death of Hussein | 4 June 1931 | ||||||||
| Currency | Hejaz riyal | ||||||||
| |||||||||
| Today part of | Saudi Arabia | ||||||||
TheSharifian Caliphate (Arabic:الخلافة الشريفية,romanized: al-Khilāfat al-Sharīfiyya) was aCaliphate proclaimed by the Sharifian leaders of the Hejaz in 1924, replacing theOttoman Caliphate, which wasabolished by theGrand National Assembly of Turkey. Even though theBanu Hashim held thecaliphate at various points in history,Hussein bin Ali, theSharif of Mecca, was the first and last caliph of this lineage.[1]
In theArab world, it represented the culmination of a long struggle to reclaim the caliphate from Ottoman hands. The first Arab revolts challenging the validity of the Ottoman caliphate and demanding that an ArabSayyid be chosen as caliph can be traced back to 1883 when Sheikh Hamat-al-Din seizedSanaa and called for the caliphate as a Sayyid.[2]
However, it was not until theend of the Ottoman caliphate, abolished by theKemalists, that Hussein bin Ali was proclaimed caliph in March 1924. His stance towards the Ottoman caliphate was multifaceted; while he was hostile to it,[3] he preferred to wait for its official abolition before assuming the title, so as not to break theUmmah by creating a second caliph alongside theOttoman caliph. He also supported financially the late Ottoman dynasty in exile, to avoid them being ruined.[4]
His caliphate was opposed by theBritish andFrench empires,Zionists, andWahhabis,[5] but he received support from a large part of theMuslim population at the time,[6][7][8][9] as well as fromMehmed VI.[10] Although he lost the Hejaz and was exiled, then imprisoned by theBritish onCyprus,[11] Hussein continued to use the title until his death in 1931.[12][13]
TheBanu Hashim, from which theHashemites originate, held theSunni caliphate during various eras, the most famous one being under theAbbasid caliphate.[14]
The idea of the Sharifian Caliphate has been floating since at least the 15th century.[15] TheSharifs of Mecca were significant figures inSunni Islam[16][17] because, in addition to them beingSharifs and their control over the two most important mosques inIslam, they also guaranteed the free passage for performingHajj and defended the pilgrimage route against various raids carried out byBedouins targeting the pilgrims.[18]
Towards the end of the 19th century, the prospects for a potential Sharifian Caliphate grew more realistic due to the decline of theOttoman Empire, which had been heavily defeated in theRusso-Turkish War of 1877–1878. The initial Arab uprisings challenging the authority of the Ottoman caliphate and advocating for the appointment of an Arab Sharif as caliph can be traced back to 1883, when Sheikh Hamat-al-Din seized control ofSanaa and explicitly called for the establishment of a caliphate led by a Sharif.[2] During this period, an increasing number of Muslim and Arab thinkers began to advocate for the idea of a caliphate returning to theQuraysh, such asAbd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi.[14]
According toIsraeli historian Joshua Teitelbaum,[14] there is little evidence that the idea of a Sharifian Caliphate ever gained wide grassroots support in the Middle East or anywhere else for that matter.[15] However,Saudi researcherMai Yamani states that the idea "became extensively debated in the Arab world in the waning years of the Ottoman Empire."[19]
When the Ottomans, aware of his religious importance, askedHussein bin Ali to join them in thejihad they had proclaimed against the Triple Entente powers, he refused, considering this jihad illegitimate.[22] On 1 November 1916, as theBritish sought to inquire about Hussein bin Ali's stance on the caliphate issue, he expressed through his son that he aligned himself with the opinion of theulama ofMecca, who would have deemed it illegitimate.[23] However, he stated that he preferred to leave the decision to theulama.[23]
In 1917, after the proclamation of independence of theArab Kingdom, theulamas ofMecca announced a series of reasons why theOttoman Caliphate would be illegitimate andHussein bin Ali would be legitimate:[24][25][26]
What does the Mohammedan world say of theBeni Osman who pretend to beCaliphs of Islam, while for many years they were like puppets in the hands of theJanissaries; tossed about, dethroned, and killed by them, in a manner contrary to the laws and doctrines established in the books of religion on the accession and dethronement of Caliphs – which facts are recorded in their history? (...) We want those who are present here to tell you who are far away that we shall confess before Almighty God, on the last day, that today we do not know of any Moslem ruler more righteous and fearing God than theson of His Prophet who is now on the throne of the Arab country. We do not know any one more zealous than he in religion, more observant of the law of God in words and deeds, and more capable of managing our affairs in such a way as would please God. The people of the Holy Land have proclaimed him their King simply because, in so doing, they would be serving their religion and country.
Despite this Hussein continued to attack theCommittee of Union and Progress (CUP) while sparing the Ottoman caliph.[27] For example, in a statement published in 1917, Hussein declared: "It will be the opening of our disassociation from it, except for the name of itsSultan, which we have kept sacred until now, in reverence to the legacy of his ancestors and in the hope of someone emerging to rescue his country from the dominance of theTuranian faction. AndAllah is the one in control and the one with the final word."[27]
Before officially assuming the title, in March 1919, he was acclaimed by the Muslim residents ofJaffa when he liberated the city. In their declaration, the inhabitants affirmed: "The Muslim residents of Jaffa gathered in their grand mosque and pledged their allegiance to Your Majesty, the Islamic caliphate. They recited benevolent prayers to support your glorious Arab throne and expressed gratitude to the Almighty, who restored the sacred caliphate to its rightful owners."[28]
The Ottoman sultanatewas abolished on 1 November 1922, at the close of theTurkish War of Independence. The office of caliph, however, was retained for an additional sixteen months, during which it was held byAbdülmecid II. He served as caliph under the patronage of the newly founded Turkish Republic until 3 March 1924, when theGrand National Assembly of Turkey formallyabolished the caliphate. After the exile ofMehmed VI, Hussein bin Ali made statements in support of theOttoman dynasty, which had been ruined and exiled fromTurkey. In this regard, he declared:[4]
The services rendered by the Ottoman family to Islam and Muslims are undeniable; their heroism cannot be belittled. The recent decision regarding the family [exile] has pierced the hearts and saddened the spirits of Muslims. Therefore, we see it as an obligation of Islamic brotherhood to meet the needs of the family and prevent them from experiencing financial difficulties. Those who wish to participate in this great endeavor should express their intentions to our representatives in Mecca.
In the same perspective, he financially supported the members of the exiled Ottoman dynasty to prevent them from being ruined. Despite his complicated financial and economic situation, he provided them with 2400 liras.[4] As long as the Ottoman caliphate existed, Hussein didn't want to take the title, to avoid dividing the Ummah.[29]
After the Caliphate was abolished by theTurkish Grand National Assembly, Hussein was proclaimed as Caliph. The accounts on the official date and proceedings vary, some place the beginning of the Caliphate on 3 March 1924, when Hussein would have declared himself Caliph at his sonAbdullah's winter camp in Shunah,Transjordan.[30] Other accounts, such as aReuters dispatch, instead set the date as 7 March 1924, and describe Hussein bin Ali being elected as a caliph by Muslims from "Mesopotamia, Transjordan, and Hejaz."[31] He visited numerous scholars during this period, traveling within his territories. Thus, on 10 March 1924, he visited the Supreme Islamic Council inJerusalem, at the Al-Aqsa Mosque. Under the presidency ofAmin al-Husseini and Al-Taji, they discussed the matter. Finally, they proclaimed a document of allegiance to the caliphate of Hussein bin Ali, in which they stated:[32][33]
We, the muftis, judges, dignitaries, and representatives of thePalestinian land, the people of authority and contract, pledge our allegiance to His Majesty, the Hashemite King of the Arabs,Hussein bin Ali bin Awn al-Hashemi, with theIslamic caliphate, on the condition that the matter is conducted through consultation, as commanded by Allah Almighty. It is also conditioned that no actions contradict the public interest ofMuslims, and that decisions regarding the affairs of Palestine, its government structure, and its opinions are made only with the consent of its people.
A third counting of the official date takes place when he received the homage of the majority of the Arab population inAmman as the caliph, on March 11, 1924.[34] On 10 March 1924, he received the allegiance of theGrand Mufti of Jerusalem and theGreek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem, according to Arabic newspaper al-Rihlat.[35] Finally, a fourth version places the date on Friday, 14 March 1924, when Hussein was evidently enthroned as caliph inBaghdad during the Friday prayer.[31] In any case, all sources agree on a date in March 1924, shortly after theabolition of the Ottoman caliphate by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.[30][31][34][36]
The Kuwaiti newspaperAl-Rai also assigns the date of the caliphate to March 1924 and mentions the proclamation made by Hussein inAmman,[32] followed by a pledge of allegiance from the Muslims. In it, they declared:[32]
Theact of the Ankara government abolishing the caliphate prompted the distinguished religious scholars of the holy sites ofMecca andMedina, as well as those ofAl-Aqsa Mosque and the surrounding countries, to surprise us and compel us to pledge allegiance with great enthusiasm to the grand leadership and the grand caliphate. This was in lieu of observing religious rituals and the fasting prescribed by clear legislation, due to the inadmissibility for Muslims to remain without an imam for more than three days, as explicitly stated in the recommendations of the venerable Farouk [= nickname ofʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb].
He also started a program of restorations of religious buildings, starting with the mosques of Palestine, most notably theal-Aqsa mosque, for which he funded 26,672 liras.[28][37]
Even if some didn't support him, it seems that his claim to the title was recognized by a large part of theHejazi,Levantine[9][38] and more generallyArabic Muslim population.[34] He also received the support ofMehmed VI, on 18 March 1924 one of the lastOttoman Caliphs and the lastOttoman Sultan, according toThe Times andVatan, that reported that he supported him as the new Caliph.[10]
Arab publications likeAl-Qiblah,Alif Ba, andAl-Nahdah supported him,[39] and the mosques ofDamascus,[40]Jerusalem,Beirut,[40]Mecca,Baghdad,Amman,Medina, andAleppo[40] organized public prayers for him.[41] In theHaifa region, the British governor noted that both Christian and Muslim Arabs rallied behind the new proclamation.[42] According to the newspaperal-Ahram, Hussein also received the allegiance of theShia Muslims ofIraq, which were satisfied to see the Caliphate going in the hands of aQuraysh.[43] The newspaper Al-Iraq reported that theJa'fari school agreed in seeing him as the legitimate Caliph of Islam, even if he was Sunni.[43]
To reinforce his proclamation and establish legal foundations for his caliphate, Hussein convened an Islamic Congress atMecca in 1924,[7] it comprised bothSunni andShiaMuslims and was thus arguably one of the most inclusive Islamic Congresses in history.[44] The Congress held twelve sessions before being indefinitely adjourned due to the advance of Saudi forces.[7] However, Hussein's caliphate received a rather diverse recognition from the Arab world who was still under colonial rule. For example, the situation inEgypt was different,[44] KingFuad of Egypt tried to assume the title by organizing an Islamic Congress inCairo in 1925, with the support ofAl-Azhar University,[38] which would chose him as a new Caliph, but this plan was ultimately scrapped since it lacked general support[44] and led to protests,[45] in part because he was seen as a monarch closely linked with theBritish.[45]
TheFrench viewed this proclamation as "the worst possible solution" in the words ofHubert Lyautey, who also defended that theOttoman Caliphate was better for French interests than the Sharifian Caliphate.[46] They believed that having a new influential caliph could risk revivingpan-Islamism, causing instability in French Muslimcolonies in the event of a conflict, and potentially giving the Red Sea to the British.[46] As a result, the French were very opposed to this Caliphate.[40] In theFrench Mandate of Syria and Lebanon, although the first reactions were positive, they engaged in various strategies to fight against it.[40] First, inBeirut,Damascus, andAleppo, the French governors were ordered to monitor localmuftis andulamas.[40] Subsequently, they forced local press to insert articles attacking the caliphate as being "paid by the British".[40] Finally, supporters who refused to abandon the caliphate were arrested and then deported.[40] Meanwhile, they had theSultan of Morocco ready to assume the caliph title if necessary, offering the French a caliph who was more aligned with their interests, albeit less significant.[46]
In theWeimar Republic, the Muslim communities supported Hussein and were opposed to theabolition of the Ottoman Caliphate.[47]Mahatma Gandhi, who was closely following the events in Palestine and the Muslim world supported the restoration of the caliphate but didn't take position on which he would support.[48]
In practice, the caliphate quickly came to an end when the Hashemite family had to flee theHejaz after its capture by theIkhwan forces ofIbn Saud, the founder of Saudi Arabia, in 1924–1925, preventing any long-term establishment.[15][49] Nevertheless, despite his exile and imprisonment by the British onCyprus,[11] he continued to use the caliph title[12] until his death.[13]
Hussein bin Ali was buried inJerusalem in 1931, as he wasn't able to be buried inMecca, as he wanted and as was the norm forSharifs of Mecca until then, forIbn Saud didn't want to allow him being buried there.[11] Thus, local dignitaries and leaders wanted him to be buried in the al-Aqsa mosque compound.[37] As the last caliph ofSunni Islam, he was buried in the Al-Arghuniyya Madrasa within the complex of theAl-Aqsa Mosque (Al-Haram al-Sharif). The following inscription is written on the window above his tomb:هَذَا قَبْرُ أَمِيرِ ٱلْمُؤْمِنِينَ ٱلْحُسَيْن بْنُ عَلِي,Haḏa qabru ʾamīri ʾal-mūˈminīna ʾal-Ḥusayn bnu ʿAlī, which translates to "This is the tomb of the Commander of the Faithful, Hussein bin Ali."[50][51]
The Sharifian Caliphate is considered by some as the last "traditional" caliphate ofSunni Islam[9][52][53][54][55] before the more recent claims of variousjihadist groups starting in the 1990s, notably theIslamic State.[56]
Le chérif Hussein accompagne son mouvement insurrectionnel d'une proclamation officielle où il accuse les Ottomans d'impiété, mais sans aborder la question du nationalisme arabe
وأعرب الأمير عبد الله بن الحسين عن موقف الحجاز بخصوص الخلافة في مكالمة هاتفية مع الكولونيل ويلسون (الملحق البريطاني في جدة) في ١ نوفمبر ١٩١٦، حيث أعلن أن جلالته ترك مسألة الخلافة للعالم الإسلامي، ولكن علماء مكة لم يوافقوا على خلافة الأتراك. وقال الملك حسين نفسه في محادثة مع فيصل غصن حول الثورة العربية: "تساءل علماء مكة عن الخلافة وشروطها؟".
سيكون هذا افتتاحًا لانفصالنا عنه، باستثناء اسم سلطانه الذي حفظناه حتى الآن تكريمًا لآثار أسلافه، وعلى أمل ظهور مخلص يحرر بلاده من سيطرة الفئة التورانية. والله هو الذي يمتلك القوة قبل كل شيء، وإليه تعود القرار النهائي.
وعقب إلغاء الخلافة العثمانية من تركيا في ٤ آذار، أعاد الحجاز توضيح موقف الحسين من الخلافة القائمة على عدم انتحاله لهذا المنصب ما دامت الخلافة العثمانية، وكان الحسين مؤمنًا بوحدة الأمة الإسلامية حتى ألغتها الأتراك.
Il reçoit l'allégeance d'une grande partie des oulémas levantins, qui lui reconnaissent sa qualité de Qurayshite et gardent à l'esprit son action en faveur de l'indépendance des Arabes pendant la guerre. En Egypte, les oulémas d'al-Azhar, haut lieu de l'enseignement musulman au Caire, proposent de réunir un congrès qui serait chargé de désigner un nouveau calife. Le roi Fouad (1917-1936) y voit évidemment une belle opportunité politique personnelle : pourquoi pas lui ?
وجاء في تعليق الأهرام على بيعة أهل العراق للحسين: "والمهم من الأمر الطائفة الشيعية في العراق بايعت الملك حسين بالخلافة" وأهل الشيعة لم يكونوا يعترفون بالخلافة لأنهم يعدون شروطها الأساسية أن تكون في أهل البيت. وقد عد هذا الحادث أكبر حادث في الإسلام بانتهاء خلافة علي بن أبي وكانت جريدة العراق قد نشرت بعنوان: "حلافة الحسين ومبايعة الجعفرية له جاء فيه: "أن علماء الجعفرية حفوا لمبايعة الحسين مع العلم أنهم امتنعوا من قبل عن مبايعة آل عثمان؛ وذلك لأنهم وجدوا الشروط المطلوبة للخلافة متوفرة فيه" فهو عربي فرشي علوي.
Along with Sharif Hussein, scholars at Cairo's Al-Azhar University called for a congress to select a new caliph; their attempt to bestow the title on pro-British King Fuad I in May 1926—one month before the Mecca Congress—ignited domestic and international protests, including one from Soviet Muslim leader Rida al-Din b. Fakhr al-Din.
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