Shandong[note 1] is a coastalprovince inEast China[8] which has played a major role in the development of Chinese civilization and culture as it has served as a pivotal cultural and religious center forTaoism,Chinese Buddhism andConfucianism. Shandong'sMount Tai is the most revered mountain of Taoism and a site with one of the longest histories of continuous religious worship in the world.[9] TheBuddhist temples in the mountains south of the provincial capital ofJinan were once among the foremost Buddhist sites in China.[10] The city ofQufu was the birthplace ofConfucius, and later became the center of Confucianism.[11]
Shandong's location at the intersection of ancient and modern north–south and east–west trading routes has helped establish it as an economic center. After a period of political instability and economic hardship beginning in the late 19th century, Shandong has experienced rapid growth in recent decades. Home to over 100 million inhabitants, Shandong is theworld's sixth-most populoussubnational entity, and China'ssecond-most populous province.[12] Theeconomy of Shandong is China'sthird-largest provincial economy with aGDP of CN¥8.3 trillion (US$1.3 trillion) in 2021, equivalent to the GDP of Mexico.[13][14] If considered among sovereign states, Shandong would rank as the15th-largest economy and the15th-most populous as of 2021[update].[15] Its GDP per capita is slightly abovethe national average.
Shandong is one of China's leading provinces in education and research. It has 153higher education institutions, ranking second in East China afterJiangsu and fourth among all Chinese first-level divisions after Jiangsu,Guangdong andHenan.[16] As of 2025[update], theNature Index ranked two major cities in Shandong (Jinan #27 andQingdao #31) in the global top 35 cities by scientific research output.[17]
The nameShandong (山东) literally translates to "east of the mountain," from 'mountain' (山) and 'east' (东), the name first came into being inJin Dynasty, when twocircuits of Shandong were created. The name refers to the province's location to the east of theTaihang Mountains.[18][19] It counterpart isShanxi, which literally means 'west of the mountains' and locates in the western side ofTaihang Mountains.
A common nickname for Shandong is Qilu (齐鲁;齊魯), from the states ofQi andLu that existed in the area during theSpring and Autumn period. Whereas Qi was a major political power, Lu played only a minor political role but became renowned as the home ofConfucius, and its cultural influence came to eclipse that of Qi. The cultural legacy of Lu is reflected in the province's official abbreviation ofLǔ (鲁;魯).[20]
Yachou bronze axe (亚醜钺) was forged by a tribe ofDongyi people, which probably called Yachou; its exquisite workmanship and valuable inscripts made it China's first-class national artifact and now preserved inChina National MuseumRemains ofAncient Linzi city sewer passing underneath the former city wall
TheShang andZhou dynasties exerted varying degrees of control over western Shandong, while eastern Shandong was inhabited byDongyi peoples, who were considered barbarians by the inhabitants of theCentral Plain. Following theannexation of Lai [zh] by thestate of Qi in 567 BC, the Dongyi gradually becamesinicized.
During theSpring and Autumn andWarring States periods, power was accumulated by regional states; Shandong was home to the state of Qi based inLinzi, and thestate of Lu based inQufu. Lu is famous for being the home ofConfucius; however, it was comparatively small, eventually being annexed by the neighboringstate of Chu to its south. Meanwhile, Qi was a significant power throughout the entire period, and ruled cities includingJimo,Linzi, andJu.
TheQin dynasty conquered Qi and founded the first centralized Chinese state in 221 BC. TheHan dynasty that followed created several commanderies supervised by two regions (刺史部) in what is now modern Shandong: Qingzhou (青州) in the north and Yanzhou (兗州) in the south. During theThree Kingdoms period, Shandong was part of the northern kingdom ofCao Wei, which ruled over northern China.
After the Three Kingdoms period, a brief period of unity under theWestern Jin dynasty gave way to invasions by nomadic barbarians from the north. Northern China, including Shandong, was overrun. Over the next century or so, Shandong changed hands several times, falling to theLater Zhao, thenFormer Yan, thenFormer Qin, thenLater Yan, thenSouthern Yan, then theLiu Song dynasty, and finally theNorthern Wei dynasty, the first of the Northern dynasties during theNorthern and Southern dynasties period. Shandong stayed with the Northern dynasties for the rest of this period.
In 412 AD, the ChineseBuddhist monkFaxian landed atLaoshan, on the southern edge of the Shandong peninsula, and proceeded toQingzhou to edit and translate the scriptures he had brought back fromPakistan andIndia.
TheSui dynasty reestablished unity in 589, and theTang dynasty (618–907) presided over the next golden age of China. For the earlier part of this period, Shandong was ruled as part ofHenan Circuit, one of thecircuits (a political division). Later on, China splintered into warlord factions, resulting in theFive Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Shandong was part of the Five Dynasties, all based in the north.
heSong dynasty reunified China in the late tenth century. The classic novelWater Margin was based on folk tales of outlaw bands active in Shandong during the Song dynasty. In 1996, the discovery of over two hundred buried Buddhist statues at Qingzhou was hailed as a majorarchaeological find. The statues included early examples of painted figures and are thought to have been buried due toEmperor Huizong's repression ofBuddhism (he favoredTaoism).
The modern province of Shandong was created by theMing dynasty, where it had a more expansive territory, including the eastern ofLiaoning (Liaodong). In 1376, the capital of Shandong moved fromQingzhou toJinan, and since then, Jinan served as the provincial capital for seven centuries.
AfterEmperor Yongle moved the capital toBeijing in 1421, the cities ofJining andLinqing along theGrand Canal flourished due to the development of canal grain transport.[21] However, due to theLittle Ice Age (approximately 1550–1770),[22][23] crop yields declined and famine persisted year after year,[24] and compounded by the harsh policies of theimperial court,[25] peasant rebellions broke out continuously.[26]
Theearthquake with an estimated magnitude of 8.5 and an epicenter just northeast ofLinyi devastated Dengzhou and the prefecture, and killed foreigners and locals, between 43,000 and 50,000 people are claimed to lost their lives.[30][31] Generally, Qing dynasty is a peaceful time for Shandong, and its population accumulated from 5 million (Shunzhi era) to 25 million (1767), and finally to 31 million at the eve ofFirst Opium War.[32]
After the defeat in theFirst Opium War, China became increasingly exposed to Western influence; as a coastal province, Shandong was significantly affected. After theSecond Opium War, Qing court openedCheefoo as trade port, and then western powers like established consulates, missionaries, Christian schools, and factories in there. Due to its strategic position, every power wanted to gain its position in the province; in the 1880s, Shandong became the logistics and training base ofBeiyang Fleet, andWeihaiwei served as the headquarter of the fleet. However, Beiyang fleet was disastrous defeated byImperial Japanese Navy in 1894, and Japanese began to penetrate into Shandong. Three years later, two German catholic missionaries were killed inJuye,Heze, causing theJuye Incident, and Qing government had to cedeQingdao to the German Empire. In 1898,Weihaiwei was also given to Britain, as the result of pressure fromRussian Empire.
Shandong was one of the first places where theBoxer Rebellion broke out, and became one of the centers of the uprising. In 1899, Qing generalYuan Shikai was appointed governor of the province to suppress the uprising. He held the post for three years.
Germany took control of the peninsula in 1898, leasingJiaozhou Bay and its port of Qingdao under threat of force. Development was a high priority for the Germans: over 200 millionmarks were invested in world-classharbor facilities includingberths, heavy machinery, rail yards, and a floating dry dock. Private enterprises worked across the Shandong Province, opening mines, banks, factories, and rail lines.[34]
As a consequence of the First World War, Japanseized German holdings inQingdao and Shandong. The 1919Treaty of Versailles transferred ownership to Japan instead of restoring Chinese sovereignty over the area. Popular dissatisfaction with this outcome, referred to as theShandong Problem, led to the vehement student protests in theMay Fourth Movement. Among the reservations to the Treaty that theUnited States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations approved was "to give Shantung to China", the treaty with reservations was not approved. Finally, Shandong reverted to Chinese control in 1922 after the United States' mediation during theWashington Naval Conference.Weihai followed in 1930.[35]
Shandong's return to Chinese administration came during theWarlord Era of the Republic of China, when theZhili clique of warlords was given control, but after theSecond Zhili–Fengtian War of 1924, the northeast China-basedFengtian clique took over. In April 1925, the Fengtian clique installed the warlordZhang Zongchang, nicknamed the "Dogmeat General", as military governor of Shandong Province.Time dubbed him China's "basest warlord".[clarification needed][36] He ruled over the province until 1928 when he was ousted in the wake of theNorthern Expedition. He was succeeded byHan Fuju, who was loyal to the warlordFeng Yuxiang but later switched his allegiance to the Nanjing government headed byChiang Kai-shek. Han Fujualso ousted the warlordLiu Zhennian, nicknamed the "King of Shandong East", who ruled eastern Shandong Province, hence unifying the province under his rule.
In 1937 Japan began its invasion of China in theSecond World War, which would eventually become part of the Pacific theater. Han Fuju was made Deputy Commander in Chief of the 5th War Area and put in charge of defending the lower Yellow River valley. However, he abandoned his base and about 600,000 Ethnic Chinese civilians fled out Jinan city with only elderly too old to leave remaining[37] when Japanese troops crossed the Yellow River. He was executed shortly thereafter for not following orders .
The surrender ceremony for Japanese troops in Shandong on 27 December 1945
During the Japanese occupation, with resistance continuing in the unoccupied areas especially by Muslim peasant villages, by 1945, communistChinese Red Army forces already held some parts of Shandong. Over the next four years of theChinese Civil War, they expanded their holdings, eventually driving theKuomintang (government of theRepublic of China) out of Shandong to the island of Taiwan. In May 1947, during theMenglianggu Campaign in the Yimeng Mountains of central Shandong, the Chinese CommunistEast China Field Army annihilated the Nationalist 74th Corp, widely considered the most elite unit of theNational Revolutionary Army.[38] In 1948, Communist forces capturedWeixian—then known as the "fortress of central Shandong"—during theBattle of Weixian.[39][40]
On 2 June 1949, after the withdrawal of the Nationalist Army's 11th Pacification District and U.S. forces from Qingdao, thePeople's Liberation Army entered the city and incorporated it into Shandong's jurisdiction. On 12 August of the same year, the PLA'sThird Field Army secured victory in theChangshan Islands Campaign.[41] With this, the Communist forces had taken full control of Shandong Province.[41]
Under the new Communist government, parts of western Shandong were initially given to create the short-livedPingyuan Province, but this did not last. Shandong also acquired the Prefectures ofXuzhou andLianyungang, but this did not last either. For the most part, Shandong has kept the same borders that it has today.
Shandong suffrered heavily during theGreat Chinese Famine of 1959–62, about six million people starved to death.[42] On 25 August 1966, a confrontation known as the "Qingdao Incident" broke out between cadres and workers on one side and students from three major local universities on the other. This marked the beginning of theCultural Revolution in Shandong Province.[43]
Mao died in 1976, ending the era of restless political movement in China, two years later, the new leadership launched theReform and Opening Up. Shandong, especially the eastern coastal region—experienced significant economic development. By 1986, for the first time, the total output value of township and village enterprises across the province surpassed that of agriculture.[44]
In 1996, Shandong became the first province in China to achieve full electrification of all households. In 1999,Zhanhua County, the province's last officially designated impoverished county, was declared poverty-free. In 2004, Shandong overtookGuangdong in both industrial output and profits, becoming China's top province in industrial strength for the first time.[45]
Benefited from its coast, Shandong experienced rapid economic growth after 1978. Ports likeQingdao,Yantai, andRizhao are constantly ranked top 50 in worldby container traffics
In August 2019, the State Council approved the establishment of the China (Shandong) Pilot Free Trade Zone, which includes three areas: Jinan, Qingdao, and Yantai. By 2020, the total population of theShandong Peninsula urban agglomeration was expected to exceed 103 million, with an urban population of 67 million.[50]
Mount Tai, with the height of 1,545 metres (5,069 ft), is the highest point of Shandong ProvinceYellow River Delta, which is located 60 kilometres (37 mi) from downtownDongying, it is one of the largestriver delta in the world[51]View ofRongcheng, the eastmost city of Shandong from a hill
Shandong is on the eastern edge of theNorth China Plain and in the lower reaches of theYellow River, and extends out to sea as theShandong Peninsula. Shandong borders theBohai Sea to the north,Hebei to the northwest,Henan to the west,Jiangsu to the south, and theYellow Sea to the northeast, east and southeast. It shares a short border withAnhui between Henan and Jiangsu.
The northwestern, western, and southwestern parts of the province are all part of the vastNorth China Plain. The province's center is more mountainous, withMount Tai being the most prominent. The east of the province is the hillyShandong Peninsula extending into the sea;Miaodao Archipaelago to the north of Shandong Peninsula is the border ofBohai Sea (west) andYellow Sea (east). The highest peak of Shandong isJade Emperor Peak, with a height of 1,545 metres (5,069 ft), which is also the highest peak in the Mount Tai Ranges.[citation needed]
TheYellow River passes through Shandong's western areas, since 1855, it has always been entering the sea to Shandong's northern coast; in Shandong, it flows on alevee, higher than the surrounding land, and dividing western Shandong into theHai He watershed in the north and theHuai River watershed in the south. TheGrand Canal of China enters Shandong from the northwest and leaves on the southwest.Weishan Lake is the largest lake in the province. Shandong's coastline is 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) long.Shandong Peninsula has a rocky coastline with cliffs, bays, and islands;Laizhou Bay, the southernmost of the 3 bays of theBohai Sea, is bordering the northern coast betweenDongying andPenglai;Jiaozhou Bay, which is much smaller, is surrounded byQingdao. TheMiaodao Islands extends northwards from the northernmost coast of the peninsula, separating theBohai Sea and theYellow Sea.
WithJinan serving as the province's economic and cultural center, the province's economic prowess has led to the development of modern coastal cities located atQingdao,Weihai, andYantai.[citation needed]
Shandong has atemperate climate:humid continental (KöppenDwa); it is borderinghumid subtropical (Cwa under theKöppen climate classification) in the south. Generally, summers are hot (typical max 35 °C) and rainy (except for eastern parts of Jiaodong Peninsula (typical max 28 °C) and Mount Tai (typical max 20 °C)), while winters are cold and dry. Average temperatures are −9 to 1 °C (16 to 34 °F) in January and 18 to 28 °C (64 to 82 °F) in July. Annual precipitation is 550 to 950 mm (22 to 37 in), the vast majority of which occurs during summer, due tomonsoonal influences.
Shandong is part of the Eastern Block of theNorth China craton. Beginning in theMesozoic, Shandong has undergone a crustal thinning that is unusual for acraton and that has reduced the thickness of the crust from 200 km (120 mi) to as little as 80 km (50 mi). Shandong has hence experienced extensive volcanism in theTertiary.
Some geological formations in Shandong are rich in fossils. For example,Zhucheng in southeastern Shandong has been the site of discovering many dinosaur fossils. In 2008, about 7,600 dinosaur bones fromTyrannosaurus,Ankylosaurus, and othergenera were found, likely the largest collection ever discovered at one location.[53]
Shandong is rich in mineral resources, with 128 types of minerals discovered across the province—accounting for 78% of all known mineral types in China. Among the 74 minerals with proven reserves, over 30 rank among the top ten in the country. Of these, gold (rock gold), native sulfur (over 90% of the national reserve), and gypsum (about 70% of national reserves) rank first nationwide.Jiaodong region is the largest gold-producing area in China and the third-largest gold concentration zone in the world.[54] Within the province's maritime exclusive economic zone, 102 types of marine minerals have been discovered, 65 of which have proven reserves.
In 2015, Shandong had a total land area of 237 million mu (approximately 15.8 million hectares), including 173 million mu of agricultural land (with 114 million mu ofcultivated land), 42.3 million mu of construction land, and 21.63 million mu of unused land.[55] The province features six major soil types: brown earth, cinnamon soil, fluvo-aquic soil, sandy loam black soil, saline-alkali soil, andpaddy soil. Among these, fluvo-aquic, brown, and cinnamon soils occupy the largest areas, accounting for 48%, 24%, and 19% of the cultivated land, respectively.
According to the results of the ninth continuous national forest resource survey, Shandong had a forest coverage rate of 17.51%.[56] Vegetation in the province belongs to 80 families, 203 genera, and includes 615 species. The natural vegetation is mainly warm-temperate deciduous broadleaf forest, with the predominant genus beingQuercus (oak), such asQuercus variabilis,Quercus dentata, andQuercus aliena, with the first being the most common. Representative conifer species include the Japanesered pine.
Shandong is home to more than 400 species of terrestrial vertebrates, including nearly 50 mammal species, 356 bird species, 17 reptile species, and 2 amphibian species.[57] Additionally, there are over 600 species of marine economic organisms, including 260 species of fish and 90 species of shellfish.
Entrance of Shandong ProvincialPeople's Congress in Jinan; the People's Congress in China is equivalent to state council in Western countries. This site was also used as Masion ofGovernor of Shandong during Ming DynastyTomb of the 59th generation senior descendant of Confucius,Kong Yanjin. Many generations of the senior-branch direct descendants of Confucius ruled theQufu area as itsfeudal rulers
TheShandong Provincial Committee of the Chinese Communist Party is the leading organ of theChinese Communist Party (CCP) in Shandong Province. It is elected by the Shandong Provincial Congress of the CCP and, during the intersessional period of the congress, executes the directives of the Central Committee of the CCP and the resolutions of the provincial congress, leads the work of Shandong Province, and regularly reports its work to the Central Committee of the CCP.[58]Lin Wu is the current Secretary of the Shandong Provincial Party Committee.[citation needed]
The Shandong Provincial People's Congress is the organ of state power in Shandong Province.[59] It was established on 17 August 1954.[60] It currently consists of provincial deputies elected from the 16 prefecture-level cities of Shandong and the People's Liberation Army units stationed in the province.[61]Lin Wu currently also serves as the Chairman of the Standing Committee of the Shandong Provincial People's Congress.[citation needed]
In ancient times, Shandong implemented a judicial system in which administrative and judicial powers were combined—local administrative chiefs also served as judicial officials. It was not until the late Qing dynasty that a modern judicial system began to take shape.[62] In August 1910, the province established the Office of the Judicial Commissioner (提法使司). In January 1911, the Shandong Provincial High Court and the High Prosecutor's Office were established, along with local courts and prosecutor's offices in the provincial capital, Jinan commercial port, and Yantai commercial port. In December of the same year, the Shandong Model Prison was founded in Jinan.[citation needed]
After the founding of theRepublic of China, civil and criminal judicial institutions in Shandong were divided into primary, local, and high-level courts. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China, all levels of Shandong's judicial organs underwent judicial reform, and participated in movements such as the Three-Anti and Five-Anti Campaigns.[62]
Today, the Shandong High People's Court serves as the highest court in the province, under the supervision of theSupreme People's Court of the People's Republic of China. The current President of the Court is Huo Min. As of February 2018, there are 18 intermediate courts in Shandong, including 16 municipal intermediate people's courts, as well as two specialized courts: the Jinan Railway Transport Intermediate Court and the Qingdao Maritime Court. The province also has 156 basic-level courts and 633 grassroots tribunals.[63]
The Shandong People's Procuratorate serves as the legal supervisory authority, comprising 16 municipal-level procuratorates, 1 railway transport procuratorate, and 161 grassroots procuratorates.[64]
In February 1949, theShandong Military Region was established.[65] In 1955, it was reorganized into theJinan Military Region, which was responsible for the operational command of the land, sea, and air forces within the two provincial-level administrative regions of Shandong andHenan, as well as military, political, and logistical affairs of its subordinate units. It also oversaw the militia, conscription, mobilization, and battlefield construction within its jurisdiction. It served as the strategic general reserve force of the entire PLA. The military region headquarters was located inShizhong,Jinan.[66]
In October 1961, based on the Mobilization Department of the Jinan Military Region, theShandong Provincial Military District was established.[67] Themilitia system was widely implemented across the province. By 1985, Shandong had approximately 1.6 million first-class reserve troops and about 6.4 million second-class reserve troops.[65]
Since 2012, Shandong's border defense has advanced the construction of an integrated land-sea control system, achieving notable results.[68] Currently, the commander of the provincial military district isQiu Yuechao, and the political commissar isWang Aiguo.[69]
Shandong ranks first among the provinces in the production of a variety of products, includingcotton,wheat, andgarlic[74] as well as precious metals such asgold anddiamonds. It also has one of the biggestsapphire deposits in the world.[75] Other important crops includesorghum andmaize. Shandong has extensivepetroleum deposits as well, especially theShengli Oil Field[76]: 39 (lit. Victory Oilfield) in theDongying area in theYellow River delta. Shandong also producesbromine from underground wells andsalt from seawater. It is the largest agricultural exporter in China.
Shandong is one of China's richest provinces, and its economic development focuses on large enterprises with well-known brand names. Shandong is the biggest industrial producer and one of the top manufacturing provinces in China. Shandong has also benefited fromSouth Korean andJapanese investment and tourism, due to its geographical proximity to those countries.[77] The richest part of the province is theShandong Peninsula, where the city ofQingdao is home to three of the most well-known brand names of China:Tsingtao Beer,Haier andHisense. Besides,Dongying's oil fields and petroleum industries form an important component of Shandong's economy. Despite the primacy of Shandong's energy sector, the province has also been plagued with problems of inefficiency and ranks as the largest consumer of fossil fuels in all of China.[77]
Historical GDP of Shandong Province, 1952–present (SNA2008)[78] (purchasing power parity of Chinese Yuan, asInt'l.dollar based on IMF WEO October 2017[note 2]
year
GDP
GDP per capita (GDPpc) based on mid-year population
Shandong is one of China's most important agricultural provinces. Its output value from farming, forestry, animal husbandry, by-products, and fisheries has consistently ranked first nationwide. The province is a major producer of grain, cotton, oilseeds, meat, eggs, and dairy. Shandong also has a highly developed agricultural industrialization system, and its agricultural exports have topped national rankings for decades.[81]
The province's grain crops are typically grown in two seasons: summer and autumn. Summer crops are dominated by winter wheat, while autumn crops includecorn,sweet potatoes,soybeans,rice,millet,sorghum, and other minor grains. Among them, wheat, corn, and sweet potatoes are the province's three major staples.[82]
Shouguang is known as the birthplace of modern solar-heated greenhouses in China and is the country's largest vegetable production and distribution center. It has been designated the "Hometown of Vegetables in China" by the State Council. Vegetables from Shouguang are distributed to over 200 large and medium-sized cities in more than 30 provinces and regions across China and are also exported to countries such as Japan, South Korea, and Russia.[83]
Shandong not only boasts abundant cultivated and livestock breeds, but also rich wild flora and fauna. In terms of plant resources, the province produces over 40 staple and cash crops such aswheat,corn,sweet potatoes, andpeanuts, over 60 varieties ofvegetables andmelons, and more than 660 species of woody plants includingfruit trees,tea,mulberry, andoak trees. There are over 1,350 species of wild economic plants, including those used for starch, oils, fibers, aromatic oils, tannins, medicinal uses, and natural pesticides.
Animal resources include over 10 types of domesticatedlivestock andpoultry, 55 species of small and medium-sized mammals, and more than 270 species of birds (resident, summer migratory, winter migratory, and transit). There are also 563 species of beneficial predators to agricultural pests and 763 species of agricultural pests. Additionally, inland aquatic resources include more than 30 species of vascular aquatic plants and over 70 species of freshwater fish.[82]
Fisheries are a traditional strength of Shandong's economy. In 2014, the province's total aquatic product output exceeded 9 million tons, with a total fishery output value of ¥360 billion, and over 12 million mu (about 800,000 hectares) of aquaculture area. Dominant marine aquaculture industries includesea cucumbers,kelp,prawns,flounder,sole,clams, andChinese mitten crabs. Inland aquaculture is rapidly developing local specialties such assoftshell turtles,Siniperca chuatsi,loach, andicefish.[85]
The production of wine is the second largest[citation needed] industry in the Shandong Province, second only to agriculture.
Geographically, thecoastal areas remain relatively flat. Most of the soil is loose, well-ventilated, and rich in minerals andorganic matter that enable full development of theroot systems.
Presently, there are more than 140 wineries in the region, mainly distributed in the Nanwang Grape Valley and the Yan-Peng Sightseeing Highway (both are inYantai). The region produced more than 40% of China's grape wine production.[86] Main varieties such asCabernet Sauvignon,Cabernet Gernischt,Merlot,Riesling andChardonnay are all at 20 years of age, considered to be the golden stage for these grapes. Most of them maintain an average saccharinity of above 20%.
In 2015, thetertiary sector (services) accounted for 45.3% of Shandong Province's total economic output.[87] In 2012, the value-added of the service sector accounted for 40% of GDP. The value-added of thefinancial sector reached ¥201.9 billion, representing a year-on-year increase of 19%; thereal estate sector contributed ¥201.6 billion, up 6.5%; total revenue fromtourism was ¥451.97 billion; and software business revenue from large-scalesoftware enterprises amounted to ¥173.79 billion.[88] In 2015, the financial sector's value-added accounted for 5% of Shandong's GDP, and its contribution to local tax revenue reached 10.7%, making it one of the province's pillar industries.[89][90] By 2018, the province's three-sector economic structure had adjusted to a ratio of 6.5:44.0:49.5 (primary:secondary:tertiary), with the service sector contributing 60% to overall economic growth.[91]
Inspur Group in Jinan High-tech Industrial Development Zone
Founded in 1991, the Jinan High-tech Industrial Development zone was one of the first of its kind approved by theState Council. The zone is located to the east of the city and covers a total planning area of 83 km2 (32 sq mi) that is divided into a central area covering 33 km2 (13 sq mi), an export processing district of 10 km2 (3.9 sq mi), and an eastern extension area of 40 km2 (15 sq mi). Since its foundation, the Jinan High-tech Industrial Development Zone has attracted enterprises as LG, Panasonic, Volvo, and Sanyo. In 2000, it joined the world science and technology association and set up a China-Ukraine High-tech Cooperation Park. The Qilu Software Park became the sister park of Bangalore park of India.[citation needed]
The export processing zone is located in the eastern suburbs of Jinan, east of the Jinan High-tech Industrial Development Zone, and to the north of the Jiwang highway. The distances to the Jiqing Highway and theJinan Airport are 9 and 18 km (5.6 and 11.2 mi) respectively.[92]
Approved by the State Council in October 1984, Qingdao Economic and Technical Development Zone has a plan of 12.5 km2 (4.8 sq mi). In 2004 the local GDP was ¥27.51 billion, which increased by 28.9%; the total industrial output value is ¥60.6 billion, which increased by 31%. There have been 48 projects invested by companies listed among the GlobalFortune 500 in the zone. With the fast development of reform and opening-up,Haier,Hisense, Aucma,Sinopec,CSIC,CNOOC,CIMC etc. are all located in the zone.[93]
The State Council established Qingdao Free Trade Zone in 1992. The zone is 60 km (37 mi) away from Qingdao Liuting Airport. It is also close toQingdao Qianwan Container Terminal. At present, more than 40 foreign-invested enterprises have moved in, and 2000 projects have been approved. It is one of the special economic areas which enjoys the most favorable investment policies on customs, foreign exchange, foreign trade, and taxation in China.[citation needed]
The State Council approved Qingdao High-Tech Industrial Development Zone in 1992. The zone is located close toQingdao Liuting Airport and Qingdao Harbor. Encouraged industries include electronic information, biotechnology, medicine, new materials, new energy, advanced equipment manufacturing, marine science & technology, national defense technology.[94]
Weifang Binhai Economic & Technological Development Area (BEDA)
Established in August 1995, Weifang Binhai Economic & Technological Development Area (BEDA) is a national economic and technological development area approved by the State Council. Covering an area of 677 km2 (261 sq mi), BEDA has a population of 100,000. BEDA possesses a large state-owned industrial land for use with an area of 400 km2 (150 sq mi). The land can be transacted conveniently, guaranteeing the demand of any project construction and providing broad development space for the enterprises in the area. Continuously, BEDA has been accredited as National Demonstration Zone invigorating the Sea by Science and Technology, National Innovation Base for Rejuvenating Trade through Science and Technology and National Demonstration Eco-Industry Park.
Weihai Economic and Technological Development Zone is a state-level development zone approved by the State Council on 21 Oct 1992. The administrative area has an area of 194 km2 (75 sq mi), including the programmed area of 36 km2 (14 sq mi) and an initial area of 11.88 km2 (4.59 sq mi). Its nearest port is Weihai Port, and the airport closest to the zone is Wuhai Airport.[citation needed]
Weihai Export & Processing Zone (EPZ) was set up by the approval of the State Council on 27 April 2000. Weihai EPZ is located in Weihai Economic & Technological Development Zone with programmed area of 2.6 km2 (1.0 sq mi). Weihai EPZ belongs to comprehensive export & processing zone. The EPZ is located 30 km (19 mi) toWeihai Airport, 3 km (1.9 mi) toWeihai railway station and 4 km (2.5 mi) to Weihai Harbor.[citation needed]
Weihai Torch Hi-Tech Science Park is a state-level development zone approved by the State Council in March 1991. Located in Weihai's northwest zone of culture, education and science, the Park has the total area of 111.9 square kilometers (43.2 sq mi), the coastal line of 30.5 kilometers (19.0 mi) and 150,000 residents. It is 3 km (1.9 mi) away from the city center, 4 km (2.5 mi) away from Weihai Port, 10 km (6.2 mi) away from Weihai railway station, 30 km (19 mi) away from Weihai Airport and 80 km (50 mi) away from Yantai Airport.[95]
Yantai Economic and Technological Development Area
Yantai Economic and Technological Development Area is one of the earliest approved state level economic development zones in China. It now has planned area of 10 km2 (3.9 sq mi) and a population of 115,000. It lies on the tip of the Shandong Peninsula facing theYellow Sea. It adjoins to downtown Yantai, merely 6 km (3.7 mi) away fromYantai Port, 6 km (3.7 mi) away fromYantai railway station, and a 30-minute drive toYantai International Airport.[96]
Yantai Export Processing Zone (YTEPZ) is one of the first 15 export processing zones approved by the State Council. The total construction area of YTEPZ is 4.17 m2 (44.9 sq ft), in which the initial zone covers 3 km2 (1.2 sq mi). After developing for several years, YTEPZ is completely constructed. At present, the infrastructure has been completed, standard workshops of 120,000 m2 (140,000 sq yd) and bonded warehouses of 40,000 m2 (430,000 sq ft) have been built up. Up to now, owning perfect investment environment and conditions, YTEPZ has attracted investors both from foreign countries and regions such as Japan, Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Sweden, the United States, Canada, etc., and from the domestic to invest and operate in the zone.[97]
Zibo National New & Hi-Tech Industrial Development Zone
Qingdao was part of Shandong Province until 1929; dissolved in 1949 and incorporated into Shandong Province. Weihai, also known as Weihaiwei. Established in 1930, dissolved in 1945, and incorporated into Shandong Province.
Accurate population statistics forShandong Province began during theHan dynasty, and its development since then can be divided into four stages. In 2 AD, the population in the area of present-day Shandong Province was over 12 million, and it exceeded 30 million for the first time by 1830—this was the first stage. From 1841 to 1949, the second stage, the population of Shandong grew steadily, reaching 45 million by 1949. During the 1950s and 1960s, Shandong experienced rapid population growth, followed by family planning policies in the 1970s and 1980s. By 1988, the population reached over 80 million.[108] According to the2010 national census, the permanent population of Shandong was 95.7931 million. In 2015, 1.2358 million people were born, and the year-end permanent population reached 98.4716 million. Among them, the 0–14 age group accounted for 16.62% of the total population, the 15–64 age group accounted for 71.17%, and those aged 65 and over accounted for 12.21%. With a population of more than 101,527,453 at the2020 Chinese census, the permanent population of Shandong exceeded 100 million, ranking second in China after Guangdong Province and slightly ahead ofHenan.[109]
According to the 2010 national census, 8.3287 million people had attained auniversity level of education, 13.3226 million had ahigh school education, 38.4682 million had ajunior high school education, and 23.9124 million had aprimary school education. The illiterate population was 4.7573 million, with an illiteracy rate of 4.97%. Shandong has achieved a high level ofcompulsory education: in 2016, the net enrollment rate for primary school-age children was 99.97%, and the retention rate for compulsory education was 97.2%.[110]
By the end of 2014, there were 2.615 million people aged over 80 in the province, and 5,932 people aged over 100. The average life expectancy was 73.42 years in 2000, 76.46 years in 2010, and was projected to reach 78 years in 2016.[111] In 2009,Laizhou was recognized by the China Gerontological Society as a "Longevity Town of China". It was the tenth such town in China, the first in Shandong Province, and also the first inNorthern China.[112]
Among the 16 prefecture-level cities, two had populations exceeding 10 million:Linyi with 11.018 million, andQingdao with 10.072 million. Among the total resident population, 51.433 million were male (50.66%) and 50.095 million were female (49.34%). The overallsex ratio was 102.67, and the birth sex ratio was 111.95. The population aged 0–14 was 19.063 million (18.78%), those aged 15–59 were 61.244 million (60.32%), and those aged 60 and over were 21.221 million (20.90%), of whom 15.364 million (15.13%) were aged 65 and above. Among the total resident population, 14.603 million had a college education or above, and 14.553 million had a high school education (including technical secondary school). The average years of schooling among the population aged 15 and above was 9.75 years, and the illiteracy rate was 3.26%. 64.014 million people lived in urban areas (63.05%), while 37.513 million lived in rural areas (36.95%).[113]
Shandong citizens are also known to have the tallest average height of any Chinese province. As of 2010, 16-18-year-old male students in Yantai measured 176.4 centimetres (5 ft 9.4 in) while female students measured 164 cm (5 ft 5 in).[114]
As of March 2015, there were 55 ethnic minority groups in Shandong Province, with a total resident population of 720,000, accounting for 0.75% of the province's total population. Among them, the Hui ethnic group numbered 540,000, accounting for 75% of the total ethnic minority population in the province. There are fourHui townships in the province, they are town of Jinling,Zibo, town of Shiliwang,Dezhou,town of Zhanglu,Liaocheng, andtown of Houji,Heze.[115]
On 21 May 2021, the main data ofthe seventh national population census in Shandong Province was released. The data showed that the total resident population was 101.527 million, of which 100.622 million were Han Chinese, accounting for 99.11%, and 905,000 were ethnic minorities, accounting for 0.89%.
In addition, there are considerableKorean diaspora in Shandong; for example,Qingdao has a Korean population of over 100,000, accounting for about 7.19% of totalKoreans in China.[116]
Other religions or not religious people[note 3] (70.0%)
The predominant religions in Shandong areChinese folk religions,Taoist traditions andChinese Buddhism. According to surveys conducted in 2007 and 2009, 25,28% of the population believes inancestor veneration, while 1.21% of the population identifies as Christian, decreasing from 1.30% in 2004.[119] The Christians were 1.89% of the province's population in 1949, the largest proportion in China at that time.[119] According to a survey of the year 2010, Muslims constitute 0.55% of Shandong's population up from 0.14% in 1949.[120][121]
The reports did not give figures for other types of religion; 80.05% of the population may be either irreligious or involved inworship of nature deities, Buddhism,Confucianism, Taoism, andfolk religious sects. Shandong is the province whereConfucius was born in the year 551 B.C.
The most well-known religion and/or philosophy of Shandong isConfucianism. Shandong is the birthplace ofConfucius and his disciples such asMencius,Zisi,Zengzi, andYan Hui. Each year thousands of people come to Shandong to visit and learn about Confucius' culture. According to Chinese tradition, Confucius was a thinker, political figure, educator, and founder of the Confucianism of Chinese thought. His teachings, preserved in the Lunyu or Analects, form the foundation of much of subsequent Chinese speculation on the ideal man's education and comportment, how such an individual should live his life and interact with others, and the forms of society and government in which he should participate. Confucius also helped editThe Five Classics (五經), which includeClassic of Poetry,Book of Documents,Book of Rites,I Ching, andSpring and Autumn Annals.[122][123]
Taoism also has had a significant historical presence in Shandong, a province rich in religious and philosophical traditions. During the Han and Tang dynasties, Taoist practices flourished in the province, especially in the sacredMount Tai, which has long been a center for Taoist pilgrimage and ritual. Taoist priests performed ceremonies there to communicate with the heavens and seek blessings for peace and prosperity. Numerous Taoist temples, such as the Dai Temple at the foot of Mount Tai. The coast part is associated with Taoist culture such as masterQiu Chuji andEight Immortals.
Due to the presence ofHui people (also called Muslim Han people), there are severalmosques in western Shandong. The history of Chrisitanity in Shandong began in the 1860s, when Qing government openedChefoo. The most influential churches areSouthern Baptist Convention,American Presbyterian Church,BMS World Mission andSociety of the Divine Word. However, after the communist took power, foreign missionaries and clergies were expelled and the Christian church was suppressed. Today there are roughly 1.5 million Christians in Shandong; the exact number is hard to get, because there are a large number of people affiliated tohome church.[124]
Temple of Guandi inGuangrao; built in 1028, making it the oldest extant wooden building in the province
In theMing dynasty, the province of Shandong was established, later renamed the Shandong Provincial Administration Commission (山東等處承宣布政使司), with its seat in Jinan Prefecture. Jinan has since remained the provincial capital. The Shandong Administration Commission governed 6 prefectures, 15 sub-prefectures (zhous), and 89 counties.[126]
After the founding of the Republic of China in 1912, the Shandong Province initially retained the Qing administrative system. In 1913, the Beijing government abolished the prefectures and sub-prefectures, instituting the dao–county system. In 1927, theNanjing government abolished thedao level, placing counties directly under provincial jurisdiction. In 1932, administrative inspectorates were established below the provincial level, functioning as provincial extensions. This marked the formal establishment of administrative inspectorate districts.[128]
In 1950, three administrative regions were abolished, reducing 16 prefectures to 11. In 1952,Pingyuan Province was dissolved; its eastern part was incorporated into Shandong. At the same time, five counties fromHebei Province were transferred to Shandong, while some counties under Shandong's jurisdiction were reassigned to Hebei andJiangsu.
In 1967, prefectures (专区) were renamed regions (地区), and the province then had 9 regions includingDezhou,Huimin, andChangwei, as well as four provincial cities:Jinan,Qingdao,Zibo, andZaozhuang.
On 26 December 2018, the State Council officially approved the administrative adjustment ofLaiwu underJinan's jurisdiction, abolishing Laiwu as a separate prefecture-level city and merging its territory into Jinan. As a result, the province now comprises 16 prefecture-level cities.[129]
As of 2023, the province's urbanization rate reached approximately 64.2% (with 65.55 million people reside in cities), slightly below the national average but showing consistent growth.[134] Shandong features a comprehensive multi-centered urban system with 16 prefecture-level cities, includingJinan, the provincial capital and a key administrative and transportation hub, andQingdao, a major coastal city with a strong port economy and international presence. The province has made notable progress in narrowing the urban-rural divide through policies promoting integrated development, rural infrastructure extension, and the growth of small towns and county-level cities.
Population by urban areas of prefecture & county cities
^abLaiwu PLC is currently no longer exist after census it merged with Jinan in 2019. Laiwu PLC's districts merged after census:Laiwu (Laicheng),Gangcheng; and new districts established after census:Zhangqiu (Zhangqiu CLC),Jiyang (Jiyang County). Laiwu PLC's districts and the new districts not included in the urban area & district area count of the pre-expanded city.
^abNew district established after census:Jimo (Jimo CLC);Jiaonan CLC merged intoXihai'an (Huangdao) after census. The new district and annexed area not included in the urban area & district area count of the pre-expanded city.
^abNew district established after census:Yanzhou (Yanzhou CLC). The new district not included in the urban area & district area count of the pre-expanded city.
^abNew district established after census:Kenli (Kenli County). The new district not included in the urban area & district area count of the pre-expanded city.
^abNew district established after census:Wendeng (Wendeng CLC). The new district not included in the urban area & district area count of the pre-expanded city.
^abNew district established after census:Dingtao (Dingtao County). The new district not included in the urban area & district area count of the pre-expanded city.
^abNew district established after census:Lingcheng (Lingxian County). The new district not included in the urban area & district area count of the pre-expanded city.
^abNew district established after census:Zhanhua (Zhanhua County). The new district not included in the urban area & district area count of the pre-expanded city.
^Zouping County is currently known as Zouping CLC after census.
Most populous cities in Shandong
Source:China Urban Construction Statistical Yearbook 2018 Urban Population and Urban Temporary Population[136]
Shandong cuisine (鲁菜) is one of the eight great traditions ofChinese cuisine. It is known for its bread (corn-based) and fish dishes and characterized by its emphasis on fresh seafood, hearty soups, and bold, savory flavors achieved through techniques like braising and roasting, with a focus on preserving the natural taste of ingredients.[137] It can be further divided into three branches: inland branch (e.g.Jinan cuisine (济南菜)), theseafood-orientedJiaodong branch (e.g.Fushan cuisine (福山菜)) in the peninsula, andConfucius's Family branch (孔府菜), with an elaborate tradition originally intended for imperial and other important feasts.
Shandong cuisine significantly influencedBeijing cuisine due to historical migration and political factors, especially during the Ming and Qing dynasties when imperial chefs and officials in the capital mostly came from Shandong.[138][139][140][141] This influence is evident in Beijing cuisine's emphasis on hearty flavors, wheat-based staples, and cooking techniques such as braising, roasting, and deep-frying.
Radio and television broadcasting in Shandong is divided into over-the-air radio, cable radio, and television broadcasting, all of which are state-owned enterprises. In May 1933, the first wireless broadcasting station was established in Jinan and named theShandong Provincial Capital Broadcasting Station. On 27 October 1950, the Shandong People's Radio Station officially began broadcasting to the entire province. By 1955, some counties and cities began to establish cable broadcasting stations. By the end of 1990, the province had 16 wireless radio stations and 34 television stations.[155] As of the end of 2019, the comprehensive coverage rates of radio and television in Shandong were 99.13% and 99.10%, respectively.[156] Among them, the Shandong Radio and Television Station has 21 channels, including 11 television channels such asShandong Satellite TV and 10 radio channels.[157] The Jinan Radio and Television Station currently has 8 television channels and 7 radio channels; the Qingdao Radio and Television Station has 7 television channels and 9 radio channels; and the Zibo Radio and Television Station has 5 television channels covering news, science education, public affairs, life, and urban topics, as well as 4 radio channels.[158]
During thelate Qing Dynasty, more than 20 newspapers were published successively in Shandong, includingJinan Bulletin (濟南匯報) founded in 1903 byGovernor of ShandongZhou Fu, and later publications such asJinan Daily (濟南日報), andShandong Official Gazette (山東官報).
At the beginning of theCultural Revolution, only Dazhong Daily and seven regional and municipal newspapers remained in circulation.
Following theReform and opening-up, the newspaper industry in Shandong resumed growth. By the end of 1990, the number of officially registered and approved newspapers in the province had reached 119.[159] Today, some of the most well-known newspapers in Shandong includeQilu Evening News,Jinan Times andShandong Business Daily.[160]
The history of railway in Shandong can be traced back toJiaozhou–Jinan Railway, which was constructed by Germans between 1899 and 1904 through the Shantung Railway Company (German:Schantung Eisenbahn Gesellschaft). The railroad was backed by German capital and operated under German management; they also built braches linking industrial towns such asBoshan andFangzi.[161] The line stretched approximately 393 kilometers, connecting Jinan, the provincial capital located in the northwestern interior of Shandong, with the German-controlled port of Qingdao. This railway is still the most important east–west main line across Shandong Province.[162]
Shandong has one of the densest and highest qualityexpressway networks among all Chinese provinces. TheseNational Trunk Highway System (NTHS) expressways pass through or begin in Shandong. Expressways that begin in Shandong are inbold:
In 2014, Shandong's total annual passenger throughput exceeded 30 million for the first time, with total cargo and mail volume reaching 350,000 tons. Among them,Qingdao Liuting International Airport alone handled over 10 million passengers.[170]
Direct flights between Shandong and Taiwan were launched in 2008. There are currently four cities with cross-strait direct flights: Jinan, Qingdao, Yantai, and Weihai, operating 10 routes with 52 round-trip flights per week, carrying over 1,000 passengers daily.[167]
Shandong Airlines was founded in 1994 and currently operates more than 220 routes, with over 700 flights per week serving more than 40 major and medium-sized cities across China. As of March 2018, the airline had a fleet of 114Boeing 737 series aircraft, with an average age of 5.0 years.[citation needed]
Baotu Spring, a culturally significant artesian karst spring, declared as "Number One Spring under the Heaven" (天下第一泉) by theQianlong Emperor of theQing dynasty.
Daming Lake, the largest lake in Jinan, whose water is from the area's springs.Marco Polo described its beauty in his works.
Thousand Buddha Mountain, renowned for its numerous Buddha images which have been carved out of the hill's rock faces or free-standing structures erect since the times of theSui dynasty and its Xingguochan Temple.
remnant ofGreat Wall of Qi, the oldest existing Great Wall in China, which is built in 685 BCE and stretches fromJinan toQingdao.
Weifang, which has numerous natural and historic sites, such as Shihu Garden (from the Late Ming and early Qing dynasty), Fangong Pavilion (from the Song dynasty), fossil sites (including dinosaur fossils, in Shanwang, Linqu), Mount Yi National Forest Park and Mount Qingyun. Yangjiabu has painted New Year woodcuts, which are also famous all around China.
Qingzhou, former provincial capital, an ancient trading and administrative center with some famous archaeological discoveries.
Temple andCemetery of Confucius and the Kong is a very famousWorld Heritage Site in China, and it is also a 5A Tourist Attraction. Lying to the Temple's east, theKong Family Mansion developed from a small family house linked to the temple into an aristocratic mansion. The male direct descendants of Confucius lived and worked.[171][172]
Shandong is considered one of China's leading provinces in education and research. Shandong hosts 153higher education institutions, ranking second in the East China region afterJiangsu and fourth among all Chinese provinces/municipalities afterJiangsu,Guangdong andHenan.[16]
Before the late Qing dynasty, Shandong generally enjoyed a flourishing educational tradition, except during a few periods such as the Qin dynasty and the late Jin dynasty. During the Spring and Autumn period,Confucius pioneered private education. In theNorthern Song dynasty, Shandong first introduced the "school field" system, which promoted institutional education. In the Ming and Qing periods, private schools, official schools, and academies of classical learning thrived. During the reign ofEmperor Yongzheng in the Qing dynasty, there were 75 academies in Shandong, of which 61 were government-run. Following theHundred Days' Reform, Shandong established thefirst provincial-level university in China.
During the late Qing period, Western missionary education had a significant influence on Shandong's educational development. For example, in 1866,Presbyterian missionaryCalvin Wilson Mateer founded the Wenxian Primary School (for boys) and Huiying Primary School (for girls) in Yuhuangding,Yantai, which were the first modern schools established in Yantai following its opening as a treaty port under theTreaty of Tientsin in 1862. These schools later developed into the Yantai Yuwen Business College, the predecessor of today's Yantai No. 2 High School. Mateer's wife,Julia Mateer, also established the first kindergarten in Yantai at Yuhuangding. Calvin Mateer went on to establish over 40 primary schools in areas includingFushan,Muping,Qixia,Laiyang,Haiyang,Jimo,Jiaozhou, and urban Yantai. Fellow missionariesHunter Corbett and his wife established theTengchow College, the first modern higher education institution in China, which also became one of the earliestChristian colleges in the country.
After theChinese Communist Party came to power, all institutions of higher education in the province ceased enrollment for five years starting in 1966 due to theCultural Revolution, which severely disrupted educational order. Restoration did not begin until after 1976.[175] As of 2016, the province had 18,853 kindergartens, 12,951 compulsory education schools (including 10,027 elementary schools and 2,924 junior high schools), 580 regular high schools, 428 secondary vocational schools, 146 special education schools, and 155 higher education institutions (144 regular universities and colleges and 11 adult education institutions).[110] There were 25 nationally designated key technical schools, with a provincial enrollment of 148,000 students in technical schools, and a graduate employment rate of 98%. Among them, theShandong Lanxiang Senior Technical School gained widespread attention after Western media reported its role in training technical non-commissioned officers for thePeople's Liberation Army.[176]
As of 2016, Shandong had 141 officially accredited higher education institutions offering general degree programs, including 67 regular undergraduate institutions, 73 vocational colleges, and 1 branch campus. Among the regular undergraduate institutions, 44 were public, 12 were private, and 11 were independent colleges. Among the vocational colleges, 60 were public and 13 were private.[177] Shandong is home to three universities included in theDouble First-Class University Plan, namelyShandong University (985),Ocean University of China (985), andChina University of Petroleum (East China) (211). Additionally, three Double First-Class universities registered in other provinces have campuses in Shandong:Beijing Jiaotong University, Weihai (211),Harbin Institute of Technology, Weihai (985), andChina Agricultural University, Yantai (985).[178] Shandong ranks first in the nation in terms of marine science research capacity. As of the end of 2009, the province had nearly 60 national and provincial-level institutions engaged in marine science and education, 29 provincial and ministerial-level marine key laboratories, over 20 scientific research vessels, 10 national-level demonstration bases for marine science and technology, and more than half of China's marine science personnel—including 23 academicians of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Chinese Academy of Engineering.[179]
As of 2025, two major cities in the province ranked in the top 35 cities in the world (Jinan #27 andQingdao #31) by scientific research output, as tracked by theNature Index.[17]
Before the 20th century, traditional sports were the main form of physical activity in Shandong, while modern competitive sports gradually became dominant. The 1903 Hetan Games (阖滩运动会) in Yantai was one of the most prominent early modern athletic competitions in China. After the outbreak of theSecond Sino-Japanese War, most sports activities came to a halt. Following thefounding of the People's Republic of China, mass sports movements gained momentum in Shandong. In October 1953, the province established the Shandong Provincial Sports Committee. During the Cultural Revolution, all sports activities were suspended and administrative agencies ceased functioning. After the Reform and Opening-Up, Shandong successfully hosted over 70 national competitions, including championships, league matches at various levels, regional tournaments, title contests, and cup competitions.[180] Today, Shandong is home to several professional sports clubs such asShandong Taishan F.C.,Qingdao Hainiu F.C.,Qingdao West Coast F.C.,Qingdao Red Lions F.C.,Shandong Hi-Speed Kirin, andQingdao Eagles.[181][182][183]
Shandong has hosted numerous major sports events, including theNational Games, theWorld Table Tennis Championships, and theAFC Asian Cup. Qingdao also served as a co-host city for the2008 Summer Olympics sailing events. In 2009, Shandong hosted the11th National Games of China, ranking first nationwide in terms of gold medals, total medals, and overall points.[184] The year 2015 is considered the "inaugural year" of marathon events in Shandong. Major marathons have since been held in cities such as Dongying, Yantai, Weifang, Tai'an, Qingdao, Linyi, Zibo (Gaoqing), Tengzhou, and Jining. Among them, Dongying, Yantai, Tai'an, Qingdao (Laixi), Qingdao (High-tech Zone), and Linyi host international marathons.[185]
Since October 1979, when Qingdao andShimonoseki,Yamaguchi Prefecture,Japan established the first pair of sister cities in Shandong Province,[187] by the end of October 2016, Shandong had 211 pairs of international sister provinces/states and cities (including 36 at the provincial level), as well as 214 pairs of international friendly cooperative relationships (28 at the provincial level). The total number of international partnerships ranks among the top in China.[188]
Currently, Shandong's relationships withSouth Australia andBavaria have become exemplary models of a new type of international provincial partnerships.[189] As of 2024, Shandong has sister regions as follows:
^Purchasing power parity of Chinese Yuan, asInt'l.dollar based on IMF WEO October 2017. Purchasing power parity (PPP) for Chinese yuan is estimate according toIMFWEO[79] data; Exchange rate of CN¥ to US$ is according to State Administration of Foreign Exchange, published in theChina Statistical Yearbook.[80]
People not bounded to, nor practicing any, institutional or diffuse religion
^The data was collected by the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) of 2009 and by the Chinese Spiritual Life Survey (CSLS) of 2007, reported and assembled by Xiuhua Wang (2015)[119] in order to confront the proportion of people identifying with two similar social structures: ① Christian churches, and ② the traditional Chinese religion of the lineage (i.e. people believing and worshipping ancestral deities often organised intolineage "churches" andancestral shrines). Data for other religions with a significant presence in China (deity cults, Buddhism, Taoism, folk religious sects, Islam, et al.) was not reported by Wang. The number of Muslims is taken from a survey reported in the year 2010.[120]
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