| United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing | |
|---|---|
 A group of Shakers, published in 1875 | |
| Classification | Restorationist |
| Orientation | Shaker |
| Region | Maine, United States |
| Language | English |
| Founder | Ann Lee |
| Origin | 1747; 278 years ago (1747), England |
| Separated from | Religious Society of Friends |
| Members | 3 (2025)[1][2] |
| Official website | maineshakers |
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| Topics |
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| Notable people |
Founders
Other members |
TheUnited Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing, more commonly known as theShakers, are amillenarianrestorationistChristiansect foundedc. 1747 in England and then organized in the United States in the 1780s. They were initially known as "ShakingQuakers" because of their ecstatic behavior during worship services.
Espousingegalitarian ideals, the Shakers practice acelibate andcommunal utopian lifestyle,pacifism, uniformcharismatic worship, and their model ofequality of the sexes, which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s. They are also known for theirsimple living, architecture, technological innovation, music, andfurniture. Women took on spiritual leadership roles alongside men, including founding leaders such asJane Wardley,Ann Lee, andLucy Wright. The Shakers emigrated from England and settled inBritish North America, with an initial settlement atWatervliet, New York (present-dayColonie), in 1774.
During the mid-19th century, anEra of Manifestations resulted in a period of dances, gift drawings, and gift songs inspired by spiritual revelations. At its peak in the mid-19th century, there were 2,000–4,000 Shaker believers living in 18 major communities and numerous smaller, often short-lived communities. External and internal societal changes in the mid- and late 19th century resulted in the thinning of the Shaker community as members left or died with few converts to the faith to replace them.
By 1920, there were only 12Shaker communities remaining in the United States. As of 2019[update], there is only one active Shaker village:Sabbathday Lake Shaker Village, inMaine.[3] Consequently, many of the other Shaker settlements are nowmuseums. As of August 2025[update], there are three members.[4]
The Shakers were one of a few religious groups which were formed during the 18th century in thenorthwest of England;[5]: 1–8 originating out of theWardley Society. James andJane Wardley and others broke off from theQuakers in 1747[6]: 20 [7]: 105 at a time when the Quakers were weaning themselves away from frenetic spiritual expression.[8] The Wardleys formed the Wardley Society, which was also known as the "Shaking Quakers".[9]
Future leaderAnn Lee and her parents were early members of the sect. This group of"charismatic" Christians became the United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing (USBCSA). Their beliefs were based uponspiritualism and included the notion that they received messages from theHoly Spirit which were expressed during religious revivals. They also experienced what they interpreted as messages from God during silent meditations and became known as "Shaking Quakers" because of the ecstatic nature of their worship services. They believed in the renunciation of sinful acts and that the end of the world was near.[7][6]
Meetings were first held inBolton, England,[6] where the articulate preacher, Jane Wardley, urged her followers to:
Repent. For thekingdom of God is at hand. The new heaven and new earth prophesied of old is about to come. The marriage of the Lamb, the first resurrection, thenew Jerusalem descended from above, these are even now at the door. And when Christ appears again, and the true church rises in full and transcendent glory, then all anti-Christian denominations—the priests, the Church, the pope—will be swept away.[10]
Other meetings were then held inManchester, Meretown (also spelled Mayortown),Chester and other places near Manchester. As their numbers grew, members began to be persecuted,[6] mobbed, and stoned; Lee was imprisoned in Manchester.[6]: 127–128, 132–137 The members looked to women for leadership, believing that the second coming of Christ would be through a woman. In 1770, Ann Lee was revealed in "manifestation of Divine light" to be the second coming of Christ and was called Mother Ann.[6]: 17–22
Ann Lee joined the Shakers by 1758, then became the leader of the small community.[11][12] "Mother Ann", as her followers later called her, claimed numerous revelations regarding the fall ofAdam andEve and its relationship tosexual intercourse. A powerful preacher, she called her followers to confess their sins, give up all their worldly goods, and take up the cross of celibacy and forsake marriage, as part of the renunciation of all "lustful gratifications".[6]: 127–131
She said:
I saw in vision the Lord Jesus in his kingdom and glory. He revealed to me the depth of man's loss, what it was, and the way of redemption therefrom. Then I was able to bear an open testimony against the sin that is the root of all evil; and I felt the power of God flow into my soul like a fountain of living water. From that day I have been able to take up a full cross against all the doleful works of the flesh.[6]: 23
Having supposedly received a revelation, on May 19, 1774, Ann Lee and eight of her followers sailed fromLiverpool for colonial America. Ann and her husband Abraham Stanley, brother William Lee, niece Nancy Lee,James Whittaker, father and son John Hocknell and Richard Hocknell, James Shephard, and Mary Partington traveled to colonial America and landed inNew York City. Abraham Stanley abandoned Ann Lee shortly thereafter and remarried. The remaining Shakers settled inWatervliet, New York, in 1776. Mother Ann's hope for the Shakers in America was represented in a vision: "I saw a large tree, every leaf of which shone with such brightness as made it appear like a burning torch, representing the Church of Christ, which will yet be established in this land." Unable to swear an Oath of Allegiance, as it was against their faith, the members were imprisoned for about six months. Since they were only imprisoned because of their faith, this raised sympathy of citizens and thus helped to spread their religious beliefs. Mother Ann, revealed as the "second coming" of Christ, traveled throughout the eastern states, preaching her gospel views.[6]: 23–24, 138–144 [13]
After Ann Lee andJames Whittaker died,Joseph Meacham (1742–1796) became the leader of the Shakers in 1787, establishing itsNew Lebanon headquarters. He had been a New LightBaptist minister inEnfield, Connecticut, and was reputed to have, second only to Mother Ann, the spiritual gift of revelation.[5]: 10–12, 41–42
Joseph Meacham broughtLucy Wright (1760–1821) into the ministry to serve with him and together they developed the Shaker form ofcommunal living (religious communism).[14] By 1793 property had been made a "consecrated whole" in each Shaker community.[5]: 42–44
Shakers developed written covenants in the 1790s. Those who signed the covenant had to confess their sins, consecrate their property and their labor to the society, and live as celibates. If they were married before joining the society, their marriages ended when they joined. A few less-committed believers lived in "noncommunal orders" as Shaker sympathizers who preferred to remain with their families. The Shakers never forbade marriage for such individuals, but considered it less perfect than the celibate state.[citation needed]
In the 5 years between 1787 and 1792, the Shakers gathered into eight more communities in addition to the Watervliet and New Lebanon villages:Hancock,Harvard,Shirley, andTyringham Shaker Villages in Massachusetts;Enfield Shaker Village in Connecticut;Canterbury andEnfield in New Hampshire; andSabbathday Lake andAlfred Shaker Village in Maine.[6]: 35–37
After Joseph Meacham died, Lucy Wright continued Ann Lee's missionary tradition. Shaker missionaries proselytized atrevivals, not only in New England and New York but also farther west. Missionaries such asIssachar Bates and Benjamin Seth Youngs (older brother ofIsaac Newton Youngs) gathered hundreds of proselytes into the faith.[5]: 55, 110
On April 12 of 1805, Benjamin Youngs and two companions held the first ceremony west of the Allegheny Mountains. It was held at the cabin of James Beedle, East of Lebanon, Ohio. In 2019, the cabin was relocated, by the Warren County Historical Society, to its current site next to Harmon Museum in Lebanon, Ohio.
Mother Lucy Wright introduced new hymns and dances to make sermons more lively. She also helped write Benjamin S. Youngs' bookThe Testimony of Christ's Second Appearing (1808).
Shaker missionaries entered Kentucky and Ohio after theCane Ridge, Kentuckyrevival of 1801–1803, which was an outgrowth of the Logan County, Kentucky,Revival of 1800. From 1805 to 1807, they founded Shaker societies atUnion Village, Ohio; South Union,Logan County, Kentucky; andPleasant Hill, Kentucky (inMercer County, Kentucky). In 1806, a Shaker village, namedWatervliet, after the New York town that was the site of the first Shaker settlement, was established in what is todayKettering, Ohio, surviving until 1900 when its remaining adherents joined theUnion Village Shaker settlement.[15] In 1824, theWhitewater Shaker Settlement was established in southwesternOhio. The westernmost Shaker community was located atWest Union (called Busro because it was on Busseron Creek) on the Wabash River a few miles north of Vincennes inKnox County, Indiana.[5]: 62–54
The Shaker movement was at its height between 1820 and 1860. It was at this time that the sect had the most members, and the period was considered its "golden age". It had expanded from New England to the Midwestern states ofIndiana andOhio and Southern state ofKentucky. It was during this period that it became known forits furniture design and craftsmanship. In the late 1830s a spiritual revivalism, the Era of Manifestations was born. It was also known as the "period of Mother's work", for the spiritual revelations that were passed from the lateMother Ann Lee.[16]
The expression of "spirit gifts" or messages were realized in "gift drawings" made byHannah Cohoon, Polly Reed,Polly Collins, and other Shaker sisters. A number of those drawings remain as important artifacts of Shaker folk art.[17][18]
Isaac N. Youngs, the scribe and historian for the New Lebanon, New York, Church Family of Shakers, preserved a great deal of information on the era of manifestations, which Shakers referred to as Mother Ann's Work, in his Domestic Journal, his diary, Sketches of Visions, and his history, A Concise View of the Church of God.[19]
In addition, Shakers preserved thousands of spirit communications still extant in collections now held by theBerkshire Athenaeum,Fruitlands Museums Library,Hamilton College Library,Hancock Shaker Village,Library of Congress,New York Public Library,New York State Library, the Shaker Library atSabbathday Lake Shaker Village,Shaker Museum | Mount Lebanon,Western Reserve Historical Society,Williams College Archives,Winterthur Museum Library, and other repositories.
As pacifists,[nb 1] the Shakers did not believe that it was acceptable to kill or harm others, even in time of war. During theAmerican Civil War, both Union and Confederate soldiers found their way to the Shaker communities. Shakers tended to sympathize with the Union but they did feed and care for both Union and Confederate soldiers. PresidentLincoln exempted Shaker males from military service, and they became some of the firstconscientious objectors in American history.
The end of the Civil War brought large changes to the Shaker communities. One of the most important changes was the postwar economy.[21] The Shakers had a hard time competing in the industrialized economy that followed the Civil War. With prosperity falling, converts were hard to find.
By the early 20th century, the once numerous Shaker communities were failing and closing. By mid-century, new federal laws were passed denying control of adoption to religious groups.[22] Today, in the 21st century, the Shaker community that still exists—The Sabbathday Lake Shaker Community—denies that Shakerism was a failed utopian experiment.[21]
Their message, surviving over two centuries in the United States, reads in part as follows:
Shakerism is not, as many would claim, an anachronism; nor can it be dismissed as the final sad flowering of 19th century liberal utopian fervor. Shakerism has a message for this present age–a message as valid today as when it was first expressed. It teaches above all else that God is Love and that our most solemn duty is to show forth that God who is love in the World.[21]
In 1992,Canterbury Shaker Village closed, leaving only Sabbathday Lake open. Eldress Bertha of the Canterbury Village closed their official membership book in 1957, not recognizing the younger people living in other Shaker Communities as members.[23]
On January 2, 2017, Sister Frances Carr died aged 89 at the Sabbathday community, leaving only two remaining Shakers: Brother Arnold Hadd, age 58, and SisterJune Carpenter, 77.[24] A profile of the Shaker community at Sabbathday Lake, published inThe New York Times in September 2024, described Brother Arnold, aged 67 and Sister June, aged 86, preparing to celebrate the 250th anniversary of Ann Lee's arrival in New York. Brother Arnold said: "We've survived 250 years. We are looking forward as much as our ancestors did to the next — whatever that involves. All we have to do is be ready."[25]
The Spring/Summer 2019 issue of the Shaker newsletterThe Clarion also makes reference to a Brother Andrew.[26] These remaining Shakers hope that sincere newcomers will join them.[27]
The Shakers at Sabbathday Lake "stressed the autonomy of each local community" and therefore do accept new converts to Shakerism into their community.[28] This Sabbathday Lake Shaker Community receives around two enquiries every week.[29]
Four Shakers led the society from 1772 until 1821.
After 1821, there was no one single leader, but rather a small nucleus of Ministry elders and eldresses with authority over all the Shaker villages, each with their own teams of elders and eldresses who were subordinate to the Ministry.[30]
The Shaker Ministry continued to build the society after Lucy Wright died in 1821:
Subsequent members of the Shaker Ministry included:
Shaker theology is based on the idea of the dualism of God as male and female: "So God created him; male and female he created them" (Genesis 1:27). This passage was interpreted as showing the dual nature of the Creator.[37]
Shakers believed that Jesus, born of a woman, the son of a Jewish carpenter, was the male manifestation of Christ and thefirst Christian Church; and that Mother Ann, daughter of an English blacksmith, was the female manifestation of Christ and the second Christian Church (which the Shakers believed themselves to be). She was seen as the Bride made ready for the Bridegroom, and in her, the promises of theSecond Coming were fulfilled.[citation needed]
Because of theadoptionist view of Christ becoming divine only during his baptism and the dualist idea that God was to be expressed in male and female genders, Shakers are sometimes viewed as beingnontrinitarian. However, modern-day Shakers profess the divinity of Christ and claim that Shaker dualism is because "God has no sex in our human understanding of the term; yet being pure spirit He may best be thought of by man with his limited power of comprehension as having the attributes of both maleness and femaleness".[38] The Trinity is not viewed as being false. Instead, Shakers argue that the Trinity has been misinterpreted for being completely masculine. Ann Lee's embodiment of Christ thus completed the Trinity by fulfilling the female aspect of God.[39]
Adam's sin was understood to be sex, which was considered to be an act of impurity. Therefore, marriage was abolished within the body of the Believers in the Second Appearance, which was patterned after the Kingdom of God, in which there would be no marriage or giving in marriage. The four highest Shaker virtues werevirgin purity,communalism,confession of sin – without which one could not become a Believer – and separation from the world.[citation needed]
Ann Lee's doctrine was simple: confession of sins was the door to the spiritual regeneration, and absolute celibacy was the rule of life.[40] Shakers were so chaste that men and women could not shake hands or pass one another on the stairs.[41]
Enshrined in Shaker doctrine is a belief in racial equality and gender equality.[42]
Shakers were celibate;procreation was forbidden after they joined the society (except for women who were already pregnant at admission). Children were added to their communities through indenture, adoption, or conversion. Occasionally a foundling was anonymously left on a Shaker doorstep.[43] They welcomed all, often taking in orphans and the homeless. For children, Shaker life was structured, safe and predictable, with no shortage of adults who cared about their young charges.[44]
When Shaker youths, girls and boys, reached the age of 21, they were free to leave or to remain with the Shakers. Unwilling to remain celibate, many chose to leave; today there are thousands of descendants of Shaker-raised seceders.[45]
Shaker religion valued women and men equally in religious leadership. The church was hierarchical, and at each level women and men shared authority. This was reflective of the Shaker belief that God was both female and male. They believed men and women were equal in the sight of God, and should be treated equally on Earth, too. Thus two Elders and two Eldresses formed the Ministry at the top of the administrative structure. Two lower-ranking Elders and two Eldresses led each family, women overseeing women and men overseeing men.[46] This allowed the continuation of church leadership when there was a shortage of men.[47]
In their labor, Shakers followed traditional gender work-related roles. Their homes were segregated by sex, as were women and men's work areas. Women worked indoors spinning, weaving, cooking, sewing, cleaning, washing, and making or packaging goods for sale. In good weather, groups of Shaker women were outdoors, gardening and gathering wild herbs for sale or home consumption. Men worked in the fields doing farm work and in their shops at crafts and trades.[citation needed]
Shakers worshipped in meetinghouses painted white and unadorned; pulpits and decorations were eschewed as worldly things. In meeting, they marched, sang, danced, and sometimes turned, twitched, jerked, or shouted. The earliest Shaker worship services were unstructured, loud, chaotic and emotional. However, Shakers later developed precisely choreographed dances and orderly marches accompanied by symbolic gestures. Many outsiders disapproved of or mocked Shakers' mode of worship without understanding the symbolism of their movements or the content of their songs.[48]
The Shakers built more thantwenty communities in the United States.[49][5]: 114 Women and men shared leadership of the Shaker communities. Women preached and received revelations as the Spirit fell upon them. Thriving on the religious enthusiasm of thefirst and second Great Awakenings, the Shakers declared their messianic, communitarian message with significant response. One early convert observed: "The wisdom of their instructions, the purity of their doctrine, their Christ-like deportment, and the simplicity of their manners, all appeared truly apostolical." The Shakers represent a small but important Utopian response to the gospel. Preaching in their communities knew no boundaries of gender, social class, or education.[50]
The communality of the Believers was an economic success, and their cleanliness, honesty and frugality received the highest praise. All Shaker villages ran farms, using the latest scientific methods in agriculture. They raised most of their own food, so farming, and preserving the produce required to feed them through the winter, had to be priorities. Their livestock were fat and healthy, and their barns were commended for convenience and efficiency.[51]When not doing farm work, Shaker brethren pursued a variety of trades and hand crafts, many documented byIsaac N. Youngs. When not doing housework, Shaker sisters did likewise, spinning, weaving, sewing, and making sale goods—baskets, brushes, bonnets, brooms, fancy goods, and homespun fabric that was known for high quality, but were more famous for their medicinal herbs, garden seeds of theShaker Seed Company,apple sauce, andknitted garments (Canterbury).[52] Some communities, especially those in New England, produced maple syrup for sale as well.
Shakers ran a variety of businesses to support their communities; many Shaker villages had their own tanneries. The Shaker goal in their labor was perfection. Ann Lee's followers preserved her admonitions about work:
Good spirits will not live where there is dirt.
Do your work as though you had a thousand years to live and as if you were to die tomorrow.
Put your hands to work, and your heart to God.
Mother Ann also cautioned them against getting into debt.[53]
Shaker craftsmen were known for a style ofShaker furniture that was plain in style, durable, and functional.[54] Shaker chairs were usually mass-produced because a great number of them were needed to seat all the Shakers in a community.
Around the time of theAmerican Civil War, the Shakers at Mount Lebanon, New York, increased their production and marketing of Shaker chairs. They were so successful that several furniture companies produced their own versions of "Shaker" chairs. Because of the quality of their craftsmanship, original Shaker furniture is costly. Shakers won respect and admiration for their productive farms and orderly communities. Their industry brought about manyinventions likeBabbitt metal, therotary harrow, thecircular saw, theclothespin, theShaker peg, theflat broom, the wheel-drivenwashing machine, a machine for setting teeth in textile cards, athreshing machine, metal pens, a new type of fire engine, a machine for matching boards, numerous innovations in waterworks,planing machinery, ahernia truss, silk reeling machinery, small looms for weavingpalm leaf, machines for processingbroom corn,ball-and-socket tilters for chair legs, and a number of other useful inventions.[55] Even prolific Shaker inventors likeTabitha Babbit did not patent their inventions before or after putting them into practice, which has complicated subsequent efforts by 20th century historians to assign priority.[56]
Shakers were the first large producers of medicinal herbs in the United States, and pioneers in the sale of seeds in paper packets.[57] Brethren grew the crops, but sisters picked, sorted, and packaged their products for sale, so those industries were built on a foundation of women's labor in the Shaker partnership between the sexes.[58]
The Shakers believed in the value of hard work and kept comfortably busy. Mother Ann said: "Labor to make the way of God your own; let it be your inheritance, your treasure, your occupation, your daily calling".
The Shakers' dedication to hard work and perfection has resulted in a unique range of architecture, furniture and handicraft styles. They designed their furniture with care, believing that making something well was in itself an act of prayer. Before the late 18th century, they rarely fashioned items with elaborate details or extra decoration, but only made things for their intended uses. The ladder-back chair was a popular piece of furniture. Shaker craftsmen made most things out ofpine or other inexpensive woods and hence their furniture was light in color and weight.
The earliest Shaker buildings (late 18th – early 19th century) in the northeast were timber or stone buildings built in a plain but elegant New England colonial style.[59] Early 19th-century Shaker interiors are characterized by an austerity and simplicity. For example, they had a "peg rail", a continuous wooden device like apelmet with hooks running all along it near thelintel level. They used the pegs to hang up clothes, hats, and very light furniture pieces such as chairs when not in use. The simple architecture of their homes, meeting houses, and barns has had a lasting influence on American architecture and design. There is a collection of furniture and utensils atHancock Shaker Village outside ofPittsfield, Massachusetts, that is famous for its elegance and practicality.
At the end of the 19th century, however, Shakers adopted some aspects of Victorian decor, such as ornate carved furniture, patterned linoleum, and cabbage-rose wallpaper. Examples are on display in theHancock Shaker Village Trustees' Office, a formerly spare, plain building "improved" with ornate additions such as fish-scale siding, bay windows, porches, and a tower.
By the middle of the 20th century, as the Shaker communities themselves were disappearing, some American collectors whose visual tastes were formed by the stark aspects of themodernist movement found themselves drawn to the spare artifacts of Shaker culture, in which "form follows function" was also clearly expressed.[61]Kaare Klint, an architect and furniture designer, used styles from Shaker furniture in his work.[62]
Other artifacts of Shaker culture are their spirit drawings, dances, and songs, which are important genres of Shakerfolk art.Doris Humphrey, an innovator in technique, choreography, and theory of dance movement, made a full theatrical art with her dance entitled Dance of The Chosen, which depicted Shaker religious fervor.[63]
The largest collection of Shaker artifacts is the Robert and Virginia Jones Shaker collection at Harmon Museum, in Lebanon, Ohio.[64]
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| Works inspired bySimple Gifts |
| Works inspired by Shakers |
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The Shakers composed thousands of songs, and also created many dances; both were an important part of the Shaker worship services. In Shaker society, a spiritual "gift" could also be a musical revelation, and they considered it important to record musical inspirations as they occurred.
Scribes, many of whom had no formal musical training, used a form of music notation called the letteral system.[65] This method used letters of the alphabet, often not positioned on a staff, along with a simple notation of conventional rhythmic values, and has a curious, and coincidental, similarity to someancient Greek music notation.
Many of the lyrics to Shaker tunes consist of syllables and words from unknown tongues, the musical equivalent ofglossolalia. It has been surmised that many of them were imitated from the sounds of Native American languages, as well as from the songs of African slaves, especially in the southernmost of the Shaker communities,[citation needed] but in fact the melodic material is derived from European scales and modes.
Most early Shaker music is monodic, that is to say, composed of a single melodic line with no harmonization. The tunes and scales recall the folksongs of the British Isles, but since the music was written down and carefully preserved, it is "art" music of a special kind rather than folklore. Many melodies are of extraordinary grace and beauty, and the Shaker song repertoire, though still relatively little known, is an important part of the American cultural heritage and of world religious music in general.
Shakers' earliest hymns were shared by word of mouth and letters circulated among their villages. Many Believers wrote out the lyrics in their own manuscript hymnals. In 1813, they publishedMillennial Praises, a hymnal containing only lyrics.[66]
After the Civil War, the Shakers published hymnbooks with both lyrics and music in conventional four-part harmonies. These works are less strikingly original than the earlier, monodic repertoire. The songs, hymns, and anthems were sung by the Shakers usually at the beginning of their Sunday worship. Their last hymnbook was published in 1908 at Canterbury, New Hampshire.[67]
The surviving Shakers sing songs drawn from both the earlier repertoire and the four part songbooks. They perform all of these unaccompanied, in single-line unison singing. The many recent, harmonized arrangements of older Shaker songs for choirs and instrumental groups mark a departure from traditional Shaker practice.
Simple Gifts was composed in 1848 byElder Joseph Brackett, on or about the time he moved to the Shaker community atAlfred, Maine. English poet and songwriterSydney Carter used the song as the basis for a hymn in 1963 "Lord of the Dance", also referenced as "I Am the Dance".
Some scholars, such asDaniel W. Patterson andRoger Lee Hall, have compiled books of Shaker songs, and groups have been formed to sing the songs and perform the dances.[68]
The most extensive recordings of the Shakers singing their own music were made between 1960 and 1980 and released on a 2-CD set with illustrated booklet,Let Zion Move: Music of the Shakers.[69] Other recordings are available of Shaker songs, both documentation of singing by the Shakers themselves, as well as songs recorded by other groups (see external links). Two widely distributed commercial recordings byThe Boston Camerata, "Simple Gifts" (1995) and "The Golden Harvest" (2000), were recorded at the Shaker community of Sabbathday Lake, Maine, with active cooperation from the surviving Shakers, whose singing can be heard at several points on both recordings.
Aaron Copland's 1944 ballet scoreAppalachian Spring, written forMartha Graham, uses the Shaker tune "Simple Gifts" as the basis of its finale. Given to Graham with the working title "Ballet for Martha", it was named by her for the scenario she had in mind, though Copland often said he was thinking of neither Appalachia nor a spring while he wrote it.[70] Shakers did, in fact, worship onHoly Mount in the Appalachians.
Laboring Songs, a piece composed byDan Welcher in 1997 for large wind ensemble, is based upon traditional shaker tunes including "Turn to the Right" and "Come Life, Shaker Life".[71]
For a Shaker Seminar held in Massachusetts in 1981, composer Roger Lee Hall wrote a pageant of original Shaker poetry and music titled, "The Humble Heart", featuring singing and dancing by "The New English Song and Daunce Companie".
Shaker lifestyle and tradition is celebrated inArlene Hutton's playAs It Is in Heaven, which is a re-creation of a decisive time in the history of the Shakers. The play is written by Arlene Hutton, the pen name of actor/director Beth Lincks. Born in Louisiana and raised in Florida, Lincks was inspired to write the play after visiting the Pleasant Hills Shaker village in Harrodsburg, Kentucky, a restored community that the Shakers occupied for more than a century, before abandoning it in 1927 because of the inability of the sect to attract new converts.
In the early 1960s, American folklorist Robin Evanchuk, after trips to Shaker communities including Sabbathday Lake, created a stage reproduction of a Shaker worship service. It included both the a cappella songs and also the dance-like movements traditionally used in the Shaker worship service. It was performed by the Westwind Dance Ensemble of Los Angeles, the AMAN Folk Ensemble of Los Angeles, and her own dance group, The Liberty Assembly. Performances by the AMAN Folk Ensemble continued until at least 1989, when the Shaker service was included in a concert tour of the AMAN Folk Ensemble that included concerts in the American mid-west, east, and New York City.
Robert Newton Peck's 1972 book,A Day No Pigs Would Die, depicts a family that lives by the "Book of Shaker". They are clearly not traditional Shakers, however, as they live in a family unit separate from others, strive for individual success, and have children.
NovelistJohn Fowles wrote in 1985A Maggot, apostmodern historical novel culminating in the birth of Ann Lee, and describing early Shakers in England.
Janice Holt Giles depicted a Shaker Community in her novel "The Believers".
In 2004 the Finnish choreographer Tero Saarinen and Boston Camerata music directorJoel Cohen created a live performance work with dance and music entitled "Borrowed Light". While all the music is Shaker song performed in a largely traditional manner, the dance intermingles only certain elements of Shaker practice and belief with Saarinen's original choreographic ideas, and with distinctive costumes and lighting. "Borrowed Light" has been given over 60 performances since 2004 in eight countries, recently (early 2008) in Australia and New Zealand, and most recently (2011) in France, Germany, Finland, the Netherlands, and Belgium. In addition to Doris Humphrey, Martha Graham and Tero Saarinen cited above, choreographersTwyla Tharp ("Sweet Fields", 1996) andMartha Clarke ("Angel Reapers", 2011) also set movement to Shaker hymns. PlaywrightAlfred Uhry collaborated with Martha Clarke on "Angel Reapers" and used Shaker texts as source material. The music of "Angel Reapers" was successfully and uniquely arranged by Music Director Arthur Solari.
In 2009, Toronto-based, American-born poetDamian Rogers released her first volume of poetry,Paper Radio. The lifestyle and philosophy of the Shakers and their matriarch Ann Lee are recurring themes in her work.
New Lebanon, New York, Shakers began keeping school in 1815. Certified as a public school by the state of New York beginning in 1817, the teachers operated on theLancasterian system, which was considered advanced for its time. Boys attended class during the winter and the girls in the summer. The first Shaker schools taught reading, spelling, oration, arithmetic and manners, but later diversified their coursework to include music, algebra, astronomy, and agricultural chemistry.[72]
Non-Shaker parents respected the Shakers' schooling so much that they often took advantage of schools that the Shaker villages provided, sending their children there for an education. State inspectors and other outsiders visited the schools and made favorable comments on teachers and students.[73]
Turnover was high; the group reached maximum size of about 5,000 full members in 1840,[74] and 6,000 believers at the peak of the Shaker movement. The Shaker communities continued to lose members, partly through attrition, since believers did not give birth to children, and also due to economics; products hand-made by Shakers could not compete with mass-produced products and individuals moved to the cities for better livelihoods. There were only 12 Shaker communities left by 1920.[75][5]: 337–370
In 1957, after "months of prayer", Eldresses Gertrude, Emma, and Ida, leaders of the United Society of Believers inCanterbury Shaker Village, voted to close the Shaker Covenant, the document which all new members need to sign to become members of the Shakers in Canterbury Shaker Village.[76]
In 1988, speaking about the three men and women in their 20s and 30s who had become Shakers and were living in theSabbathday Lake Shaker Village, Eldress Bertha Lindsay of the other community, the Canterbury Shaker Village, disputed their membership in the society: "To become a Shaker you have to sign a legal document taking the necessary vows and that document, the official covenant, is locked up in our safe. Membership is closed forever."[76]
However, Shaker covenants lack a "sunset clause" and today's Shakers ofSabbathday Lake Shaker Village welcome sincere new converts to Shakerism into the society:[27]
If someone wants to become a Shaker, and the Shakers assent, the would-be member can move into the dwelling house. If the novices, as they are called, stay a week, they sign an articles [sic] of agreement, which protects the colony from being sued for lost wages. After a year, the Shakers will take a vote whether to allow the novice in, but it takes another four years to be granted full Shaker status in sharing in the colony's finances and administrative and worship decisions.[27]
On January 2, 2017, Sister Frances Carr died aged 89 at the Sabbathday community, leaving only two remaining Shakers: Brother Arnold Hadd, age 58, and SisterJune Carpenter, 77.[77] In the Spring/Summer 2019 issue of the Shaker newsletterThe Clarion, the current membership was given as Brother Arnold, Sister June, and Brother Andrew.[78] These remaining Shakers still hope that sincere newcomers will join them.[27] In September 2024, theNew York Times published an article about the last two remaining members of the community.[25] In August 2025, NPR reported that Sister April Baxter has joined the community, but is not yet a full member.[79]
This article incorporatespublic domain material fromThe Shakers" Shaker Historic Trail.National Park Service. RetrievedMarch 23, 2014.However, the members at Sabbathday Lake stressed the autonomy of each local community. Quietly, a few younger people became associated with the Maine community in the 1960s through the 1980s. The two remaining members of this community, Arnold Hadd and June Carpenter, are listed as members today.
Hadd and the other Shakers are not giving up. They are open to converts and average two inquiries a week.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) The United Society of Shakers at Sabbathday Lake, Maine. Retrieved January 18, 2011.Decades before emancipation and 150 years before women had the vote, Shakers practised social, gender and racial equality for all members.
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