Shōjo manga (少女漫画,lit. 'girls' comics', alsoromanized asshojo orshoujo) is an editorial category ofJapanese comics targeting an audience of adolescent girls and young adult women. It is, along withshōnen manga (targeting adolescent boys),seinen manga (targeting young adult and adult men), andjosei manga (targeting adult women), one of the primary editorial categories of manga.Shōjo manga is traditionally published in dedicatedmanga magazines, which often specialize in a particular readership age range or narrative genre.
Shōjo manga originated from Japanese girls' culture at the turn of the twentieth century, primarilyshōjo shōsetsu (girls' prose novels) andjojōga (lyrical paintings). The earliestshōjo manga was published in general magazines aimed at teenagers in the early 1900s and began a period of creative development in the 1950s as it began to formalize as a distinct category of manga. While the category was initially dominated by malemanga artists, the emergence and eventual dominance of female artists beginning in the 1960s and 1970s led to significant creative innovation and the development of more graphically and thematically complex stories. Since the 1980s, the category has developed stylistically while simultaneously branching into different and overlapping subgenres.
Strictly speaking,shōjo manga does not refer to a specific style or a genre but rather indicates atarget demographic. While certain aesthetic, visual, and narrative conventions are associated withshōjo manga, these conventions have changed and evolved over time, and none are strictly exclusive toshōjo manga. Nonetheless, several concepts and themes have come to be typically associated withshōjo manga, both visual (non-rigidpanel layouts, highly detailed eyes) and narrative (a focus on human relations and emotions; characters that defy traditional roles and stereotypes surrounding gender and sexuality; depictions ofsupernatural andparanormal subjects).
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The Japanese wordshōjo (少女) translates literally to "girl", but in common Japanese usage girls are generally referred to asonna no ko (女の子) and rarely asshōjo.[1] Rather, the termshōjo is used to designate a social category that emerged during theMeiji era (1868–1912) of girls and young women at the age between childhood and marriage. Generally this referred to school-aged adolescents, with whom an image of "innocence, purity and cuteness" was associated; this contrasted themoga ("modern girl", young unmarried working women), with whom a more self-determined and sexualized image was associated.[2]Shōjo continued to be associated with an image of youth and innocence after the end of the Meiji era, but took on a strongconsumerist connotation beginning in the 1980s as it developed into a distinct marketing category for girls; thegyaru(ギャル) also replaced themoga as the archetypical independent woman during this period.[3][4][5]
Strictly speaking,shōjo manga does not refer to a specific style or a genre, but rather indicates atarget demographic.[6] The Japanesemanga market is segmented by target readership, with the major categories divided by gender (shōjo for girls,shōnen for boys) and by age (josei for women,seinen for men). Thus,shōjo manga is typically defined as manga marketed to an audience of adolescent girls and young adult women,[7] thoughshōjo manga is also read by men[8] and older women.[9]
Shōjo manga is traditionally published in dedicatedmanga magazines that are directed at a readership ofshōjo, an audience that emerged in the early 20th century and which has grown and diversified over time.[10] While the style and tone of the stories published in these magazines varies across publications and decades, an invariant characteristic ofshōjo manga has been a focus on human relations and the emotions that accompany them.[11] Some critics, such asKyoto International Manga Museum curator Kayoko Kuramochi and academicMasuko Honda [ja], emphasize certain graphic elements when attempting to defineshōjo manga: the imaginative use of flowers, ribbons, fluttering dresses, girls with large sparkling eyes, and words that string across the page, which Honda describes using theonomatopoeiahirahira. This definition accounts for works that exist outside the boundaries of traditionalshōjo magazine publishing but which nonetheless are perceived asshōjo, such as works published on the Internet.[12]
As the Japanese publishing industry boomed during theMeiji era, new magazines aimed at a teenage audience began to emerge, referred to asshōnen.[13] While these magazines were ostensibly unisex, in practice the editorial content of these magazines largely concerned topics that were of interest to boys.[14] Faced with growing demand for magazines aimed at girls, the firstshōjo magazines were published, andshōnen magazines came to target boys exclusively.[14] The first exclusivelyshōjo magazine wasShōjo-kai [ja], first published in 1902. This was followed byShōjo Sekai in 1906,Shōjo no Tomo in 1908,Shōjo Gahō in 1912, andShōjo Club in 1923.[14] These magazines focused primarily onshōjo shōsetsu (lit. "girls' novel", a term for illustrated novels and poems aimed at an audience of girls) and only incidentally on manga.[15]
Shōjo shōsetsu nevertheless played an important role in establishing ashōjo culture, and laid the foundations for what would become the major recurrent themes ofshōjo manga through their focus on stories of love and friendship.[16] Among the most significant authors of this era wasNobuko Yoshiya, a major figure in theClass S genre whose novels such asHana Monogatari centered onromantic friendships between girls and women.[17][18] The visual conventions ofshōjo manga were also heavily influenced by the illustrations published in these magazines, with works by illustratorsYumeji Takehisa,Jun'ichi Nakahara, andKashō Takabatake [ja] featuring female figures with slender bodies, fashionable clothing, and large eyes.[16][19] Japanese artists who studied in France at the time were influenced by the methods of expression of Art Nouveau and early pin-up artists.[20][21]
Earlyshōjo manga took the form of short, humorous stories with ordinary settings (such as schools and neighborhoods)[22] and which often featuredtomboy protagonists.[23][24] These works began to develop in the 1930s through the influence of artists such asSuihō Tagawa andShosuke Kurakane; this period saw some femaleshōjo artists, such asMachiko Hasegawa andToshiko Ueda, though they were significantly less common than male artists.[23][24]
Among the most influential artists of this era wasKatsuji Matsumoto, a lyrical painter influenced inmoga culture and the artistic culture of the United States. Having grown tired of depicting typical innocentshōjo subjects in his illustrations,[22] he pivoted to drawing manga in the 1920s, where he was able to depictmoga and tomboys more freely.[25] His style, likely influenced by American comic book artists likeGeorge McManus andEthel Hays and American cinema of the era, introduced sophisticated and avant-garde innovations inshōjo manga, such as theart deco-inspiredPoku-chan (1930), the cinematicNazo no Kurōbā (1934), and his most famous workKurukuru Kurumi-chan (1938).[26][27]
With the outbreak of theSecond Sino-Japanese War in 1937, censorship and paper rationing hindered the development of magazines, which either folded or were forced to merge to survive. The magazines that continued to published were reduced to a few pages of black and white text, with few or no illustrations.[28] 41 total magazines remained in publication in 1945, two of which were shōjo magazines:Shōjo Club andShōjo no Tomo.[28][29]
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With the end of the war, Japan entered into a period of large-scale artistic production in cinema, radio, and publishing. Fiction novels enjoyed a surge of popularity, while the number of published magazines grew from 41 in 1945 to 400 by 1952; the number of publishing companies grew from 300 to roughly 2000 during the same period. While not all of theses magazines and companies published children's literature, publications for children constituted a significant percentage of publishing output.[28] Contemporaneously,kashi-hon (book rental stores) experienced a boom in popularity. These stores rented books for a modest fee of five to tenyen, roughly equivalent to half the cost of a subway ticket at the time.[30][31] This had the effect of widening access to books among the general public and spurring additional manga publishing.[32]
Shōjo manga artists who had been active prior to the war returned to the medium, includingShosuke Kurakane withAnmitsu Hime (1949–1955),[23]Toshiko Ueda withFuichin-san (1957–1962),[33] and Katsuji Matsumoto resuming publication ofKurukuru Kurumi-chan.[34] During this period, Matsumoto developed his art into a style that began to resemble thekawaii aesthetic that would emerge several decades later.[34] New manga artists, such asOsamu Tezuka and other artists associated withTokiwa-sō, created works that introduced intense drama and serious themes to children's manga using a new format that had become popular inshōnen manga: the "story manga", which depicted multi-chapter narratives withcontinuity rather than a succession of essentially independent vignettes.[23][34]Princess Knight (1953–1956) by Tezuka is credited with introducing this type of narrative, along with Tezuka's innovative and dynamic style, toshōjo magazines.[35][36]
At the same time,shōjo on thekashi-hon market developed its own distinct style through the influence ofjojōga (lyrical painting).Jojōga artists Yukiko Tani andMacoto Takahashi drew cover illustrations forshōjo manga anthologies such asNiji andHana before transitioning into drawing manga themselves.[37] Rather than following Matsumoto's trajectory of moving away from the visual conventions of lyrical painting, Tani and Takahashi imported them into their manga, with works defined by a strong sense ofatmosphere and a focus on the emotions rather than the actions of their protagonists.[38][39] Takahashi's manga seriesArashi o Koete (1958) was a major success upon its release, and marked the beginnings of thisjojōga-influenced style eclipsing Tezuka's dynamic style as the dominant visual style ofshōjo manga.[35][36] Not allkashi-honshōjo conformed to this lyrical style: one of the most popularshōjokashi-hon anthologies wasKaidan (怪談,lit. "Ghost Stories"), which launched in 1958 and ran for more than one hundred monthly issues. As its name implies, the anthology publishedsupernatural stories focused onyūrei andyōkai. Its success with female readers resulted in other generalistshōjo anthologies beginning to publish horror manga, laying the groundwork for what would become a significant subgenre ofshōjo manga.[40]
As manga became generally more popular over the course of the decade, the proportion of manga published byshōjo magazines began to increase. For example, while manga represented only 20 percent of the editorial content ofShōjo Club in the mid-1950s, by the end of the decade it composed more than half.[41] Manyshōjo magazines had in effect became manga magazines, and several companies launched magazines dedicated exclusively toshōjo manga: firstKodansha in 1954 withNakayoshi, followed byShueisha in 1955 withRibon.[42] From this combination of light-hearted stories inherited from the pre-war era, dramatic narratives introduced by the Tokiwa-sō, and cerebral works developed on thekashi-hon market,shōjo manga of this period was divided by publishers into three major categories:kanashii manga (かなしい漫画,lit. "sad manga"),yukai na manga (ゆかいな漫画,lit. "happy manga"), andkowai manga (こわい漫画,lit. "scary manga").[43][44]
In the 1950s,shōjo manga was a genre that was created primarily by male authors, notablyLeiji Matsumoto,Shōtarō Ishinomori,Kazuo Umezu, andTetsuya Chiba.[45] Though some creators (notably Tezuka, Ishinomori, and Umezu) created works focused on active heroines, mostshōjo stories of this era were typically focused on tragic and passive heroines who bravely endured adversity.[46][36][47] Beside Toshiko Ueda, several female manga artists started working during the 1950s, notablyHideko Mizuno,Miyako Maki,Masako Watanabe andEiko Hanamura, most of them debuted within thekashi-hon anthologyIzumi (泉).[47] While they constituted a minority ofshōjo manga creators, the editorial departments of magazines noted that their works were more popular with female readers than works created by their male peers.[48]
By the 1960s, the ubiquity of television in Japanese households and the rise of serialized television programs emerged as a significant competitor to magazines. Many monthly magazines folded and were replaced by weekly magazines, such asShōjo Friend andMargaret.[49] To satisfy the need for weekly editorial content, magazines introduced contests in which readers could submit their manga for publication; female artists dominated these contests, and many amateur artists who emerged from these contests went on to have professional manga careers.[50] The first artist to emerge from this system wasMachiko Satonaka, who at the age of 16 had debut mangaPia no Shōzō ("Portrait of Pia", 1964) published inShōjo Friend.[51]
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The emergence of female artists led to the development ofroma-kome (romantic comedy) manga, historically an unpopular genre among maleshōjo artists. Hideko Mizuno was the first to introduce romantic comedy elements toshōjo manga through her manga adaptions of American romantic comedy films:Sabrina in 1963 asSutekina Cora, andThe Quiet Man in 1966 asAkage no Scarlet. Other artists, such as Masako Watanabe,Chieko Hosokawa, andMichiko Hosono similarly created manga based on American romantic comedy films, or which were broadly inspired by western actresses and models and featured western settings.[52] Contemporaneously, artists such asYoshiko Nishitani became popular forrabu-kome (literally "love comedy") manga, focused on protagonists who were ordinary Japanese teenaged girls, with a narrative focus on themes of friendship, family, school, and love.[53][54]
While early romanceshōjo manga was almost invariably simple and conventional love stories, over time and through the works of manga artists such asMachiko Satonaka andYukari Ichijō, the genre adopted greater narrative and thematic complexity.[55] This gradual maturity came to be reflected in other subgenres: horror manga artist Kazuo Umezu brokeshōjo artistic conventions by depicting female characters who were ugly, frightening, and grotesque in his 1965 seriesReptilia published inShōjo Friend, which led to moreshōjo artists depicting darker and taboo subject material in their work.[56]Shōjosports manga, such asChikako Urano'sAttack No. 1 (1968–1970), began to depict physically active rather than passive female protagonists.[57] In 1969, the firstshōjo manga sex scene was published inHideko Mizuno'sFire! (1969–1971).[58]
By the end of the decade, mostshōjo magazines now specialized in manga, and no longer published their previous prose literature and articles.[59] As thekashi-hon declined, so too did their manga anthologies; most folded, with their artists and writers typically migrating to manga magazines.[30] Mostshōjo manga artists were women,[55] and the category had developed a unique visual identity that distinguished it fromshōnen manga.[59]
By the early 1970s, mostshōjo manga artists were women, though editorial positions atshōjo manga magazines remained male-dominated.[60] Over the course of the decade,shōjo manga became more graphically and thematically complex, as it came to reflect the prevailing attitudes of thesexual revolution andwomen's liberation movement.[61] This movement towards narratively complex stories is associated with the emergence of a new generation ofshōjo artists collectively referred to as theYear 24 Group, which includedMoto Hagio,Keiko Takemiya,Yumiko Ōshima, and numerous others.[55][31] Works of the Year 24 Group focused on the internal psychology of their characters, and introduced new genres toshōjo manga such asadventure fiction,science fiction,fantasy, andhistorical drama.[55][62] The art style of the Group, influenced by Machiko Satonaka and Yukari Ichijō, came to pioneer new visual standards forshōjo manga: finer and lighter lines, beautiful faces that bordered on exaggeration, andpanels that overlapped or were entirely borderless.[63]
Numerous artists contributed to innovation inshōjo manga during the 1970s. Takemiya and Hagio originated a new genre,shōnen-ai (male-male romance), with Takemiya'sSunroom Nite (1970) and Hagio'sThe November Gymnasium (1971).[64] The historical dramaThe Rose of Versailles (1972–1973) byRiyoko Ikeda became the first major critical and commercial success inshōjo manga; the series was groundbreaking in its portrayal of gender and sexuality, and was influential in its depiction ofbishōnen (literally "beautiful boys"), a term forandrogynous male characters.[58]Ako Mutsu andMariko Iwadate led a new trend ofotomechikku manga. While works of the Year 24 Group were defined by their narrative complexity,otomechikku manga focused on the ordinary lives of teenaged Japanese protagonists. The genre waned in popularity by the end of the decade, but its narrative and visual style made a lasting impact onshōjo manga, particularly the emergent aesthetic ofkawaii.[65][66][67] Veteranshōjo artists such asMiyako Maki andHideko Mizuno began developing new manga for their formerly child-aged readers who were now adults. Although their attempts were commercially unsuccessful, with short-lived magazines such asPapillon (パピヨン) atFutabasha in 1972, their works were the origins ofladies comics before the category's formal emergence in the early 1980s.[68][69][70]
By the end of the 1970s, the three largest publishing houses in Japan (Kodansha,Shogakukan, andShueisha) as well asHakusensha established themselves as the largest publishers ofshōjo manga, and maintained this dominant position in the decades that followed.[71] The innovation ofshōjo manga throughout the decade attracted the attention of manga critics, who had previously ignoredshōjo manga or regarded it as unserious, but who now declared thatshōjo manga had entered its "golden age".[72][73] This critical attention attracted a male audience toshōjo manga who, although a minority of overallshōjo readers, remained as an audience for the category.[74][75]
Since the 1970s,shōjo manga has continued to develop stylistically while simultaneously branching out into different but overlapping subgenres.[76] This development began with a shift in characters and settings: while foreign characters and settings were common in the immediate post-war period, stories began to be set in Japan more frequently as the country began to re-assert an independent national identity.[66]Meiji University professorYukari Fujimoto writes that beginning in the 1990s,shōjo manga became concerned with self-fulfillment. She intimates that theGulf War influenced the development of female characters "who fight to protect the destiny of a community", such asRed River (1995–2002),Basara (1990–1998),Magic Knight Rayearth (1993–1996), andSailor Moon (1991–1997). Fujimoto opines that theshōjo manga of the 1990s depicted emotional bonds between women as stronger than the bonds between a man and a woman.[77]
In 1980, Kodansha publishedBe Love as the first manga magazine aimed at an audience of adult women. It was quickly followed by a wave of similar magazines, includingFeel Young at Kodansha,Judy at Shogakukan, andYou,Young You andOffice You at Shueisha. This category of manga, referred to as "ladies' comics" orjosei manga, shares many common traits withshōjo manga, with the primary distinguishing exception of a focus on adult protagonists rather than teenaged or younger protagonists.[78] Sexuality is also depicted more openly, though these depictions in turn came to influenceshōjo manga, which itself began to depict sexuality more openly in the 1990s.[79] Several manga magazines blur distinctions betweenshōjo andjosei, and publish works that aesthetically resembleshōjo manga but which deal with the adult themes ofjosei manga; examples includeKiss at Kodansha,Chorus andCookie at Shueisha, andBetsucomi at Shogakukan.[80]
Nicheshōjo publications that eschewed typicalshōjo manga conventions emerged in the 1980s, particularly in the horror and erotica genres. This occurred in the context of the decline ofkashi-hon publishing, where publishers survived market shifts away from book rental by offering collected volumes of manga that had not been previously serialized in magazines. Hibari Shōbo and Rippū Shōbo were among the publishing companies that began to publishshōjo horror manga in this format, typically as volumes that contained a mix ofkashi-hon reissues and original creations.[81] Horrorshōjo manga published bykashi-hon publishers was typically more gory and grotesque than the horror manga of mainstreamshōjo magazines, in some case prompting accusations of obscenity and lawsuits by citizens' associations.[82] These publishing houses folded by the end of the 1980s as they became replaced with mainstreamshōjo manga magazines dedicated to the horror genre, beginning withMonthly Halloween in 1986.[83]
In the 1990s, a genre ofsoftcore pornographicshōjo manga emerged under the genre nameteens' love. The genre shares many common traits with pornographicjosei manga, with the distinguishing exception of the age of the protagonists, who are typically in their late teens and early twenties.[84] Teens' love magazines proliferated at smaller publishers, such asOhzora Publishing, which published a wide range of bothjosei and teens' love manga.[84] The genre gradually migrated from small publishers to larger ones, such asDessert and Shogakukan's mainstreamshōjo magazines.[84]
By the 2000s, this nicheshōjo manga, particularly the teens' love genre, had largely abandoned printed formats in favor of the Internet, in response to the rise ofmobile phones in Japan.[85]
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In the 2000s, publishers who produced manga aimed at a female audience faced a changing market:josei manga had declined in popularity, girls increasingly preferredtelevision dramas over printed of entertainment, and the manga market generally had slowed. Many major publishers restructured theirshōjo manga magazine operations in response, folding certain magazines and launching new publications.[86] The majority of the newly launched magazines during this period were commercial failures.[87]
In 2008, the publishing houseFusosha, which had previously not published manga, entered the manga market with theshōjo manga magazineMalika. The magazine was unconventional compared to othershōjo manga magazines of the era: in addition to publishing manga by renowned female authors, it featured contributions from celebrities in media, illustration, and design; the magazine also operated a website that published music and additional stories. The magazine was a commercial failure and folded after six issues, but came to be emblematic of a new trend inshōjo manga:cross-media marketing, where works are published across multiple mediums simultaneously.[88]
Earlyshōjo manga successes in this cross-media approach includeNana (2000–2009) byAi Yazawa,Lovely Complex (2001–2006) byAya Nakahara, andNodame Cantabile (2001–2010) byTomoko Ninomiya, all of which were alternately adapted into films, television dramas, anime series, video games, and series-branded music CDs.[89] Older manga series, such asAttack No. 1 andBoys Over Flowers, found renewed success after being relaunched with cross-media adaptations.[90]
Theshōjo magazinesAsuka andPrincess, which distinguished themselves by publishing a diversity of narrative genres such as fantasy and science fiction, saw new competitors emerge in the 2000s:Monthly Comic Zero Sum in 2002,Sylph in 2006,Comic Blade Avarus in 2007, andAria in 2010.[91] These new magazines explicitly targeted an audience ofanime andboys' love (male-male romance) fans by publishing manga that closely resembled the visual style of anime, featuredbishōnen protagonists in fantastical environments, and which deliberately played with the visual and narrative conventions ofshōjo manga. In sum, the magazines represented the integration ofmoe inshōjo manga: a term describing an expression of cuteness focused on feelings of affection and excitement that is distinct fromkawaii, the more child-like and innocent expression of cuteness typically associated withshōjo manga.[91]
Moe was additionally expressed inshōjo manga through the emergence of so-called "boysshōjo manga", beginning with the magazinesComic High! in 2004 andComic Yell! in 2007. Magazines in this category publish manga aimed at a male readership, but which use a visual style that draws significantly from the aesthetics ofmoe andshōjo manga.[92]
English-language translations ofshōjo manga were first published in North America in the late 1990s. As theAmerican comic book market was largely oriented towards male readers at the time,shōjo manga found early success by targeting a then-unreached audience of female comic book readers; English translations of titles such asSailor Moon,Boys Over Flowers, andFruits Basket became best-selling books. The English manga market crashed in the late 2000s as a result of thefinancial crisis of 2007–2008, and when the medium regained popularity in the 2010s,shōnen manga emerged as the most popular category of manga among English-language readers. Nevertheless, every major English-language manga publisher maintains a robust line ofshōjo manga;Viz Media in particular publishesshōjo manga under its Shojo Beat imprint, which it also published asa serialized manga magazine in the mid- to late-2000s.[93]
The visual style ofshōjo manga was largely similar to that ofshōnen manga until the late 1950s, a function of the fact that bothshōjo andshōnen manga were created by the same, mostly male, artists.[94] During the pre-war period, these artists were especially influenced by themodernist style ofGeorge McManus,[26] while in the post-war period the dynamic style ofOsamu Tezuka became the primary reference point for manga. Whileshōjo manga inherited some of these influences, the unique style that emerged at the end of the 1950s which came to distinguishshōjo manga fromshōnen manga was primarily derived from pre-warshōjo shōsetsu.[95]
Shōjo shōsetsu is characterized by a "flowery and emotional" prose style focused on theinner monologue of the protagonist.[95] Narration is often punctuated with non-verbal elements that express the feelings of the protagonists; writerNobuko Yoshiya in particular made extensive use of multipleellipsis ("..."), exclamation points, anddashes in the middle of sentences, the lattermost of which were scattered across pages in a manner resembling verses of poetry.[96][97] Prose is accompanied by illustrations by lyrical painters, which are characterized by a sentimental style influenced byArt Nouveau andNihonga. Particular attention is paid to representations ofshōjo, who are depicted as well-dressed and possessing large, very detailed eyes that have star-shaped highlights.[98]
This narrative and visual style began to influenceshōjo manga towards the end of the 1950s;Macoto Takahashi, a lyrical painter and manga artist, is regarded as the first artist to use this style in manga.[99][100][101][102] The style was quickly adopted by his contemporaries and later byshōjo artists who emerged in the 1960s, while in the 1970s artists associated with theYear 24 Group developed the style significantly.[94] According to manga artist, academic, and Year 24 Group memberKeiko Takemiya,shōjo manga was able to develop this distinct style because the category was seen as marginal by editors, who consequently allowed artists to draw stories in whatever manner they wished so long as reader response remained positive.[103] Stylistic elements that were developed by the Year 24 Group became established as visual hallmarks ofshōjo manga; many of these elements later spread toshōnen manga, such as the use of non-rigid panel layouts and highly detailed eyes that express the emotions of characters.[71]
Beginning in the 1970s,panel layouts inshōjo manga developed a new and distinct style. In his 1997 bookWhy Is Manga So Interesting? Its Grammar and Expression, manga artist and criticFusanosuke Natsume identifies and names the three major aspects of panel construction that came to distinguishshōjo manga fromshōnen manga. The first,naiho ("panel encapsulations"), refers to the use of layouts that break from the traditional comic approach of a series of sequential boxes.[104] In this style, elements extend beyond the borders of panels, or the panel border is removed entirely.[105] Intervals between panels are also were modified, with sequential panels that depicted the same event from different angles or perspectives.[104] Second iskaiho ("release"), referring to the use ofdecompression to create more languid and relaxed sequences. Oftentimes in compositions without panel borders, text is removed fromspeech balloons and spread across the page, especially in instances where the dialogue communicates the thoughts, feelings, andinternal monologue of the speaker.[105][104] Third ismahaku ("break"), referring to the symbolic use ofwhite space.[106]
A defining stylistic element ofshōjo manga is its depiction of characters with very large, detailed eyes that have star-shaped highlights,[107][108] sometimes referred to asdekame (デカ目).[109] This technique did not originate inshōjo manga; large eyes have been drawn in manga since the early 20th century, notably by Osamu Tezuka, who drew inspiration from thetheatrical makeup of actresses in theTakarazuka Revue when drawing eyes.[50] A large central star that replaces thepupil dot began to appear at key moments inshōjo manga by Tezuka andShotaro Ishinomori in the mid-1950s,[110] though these details generally trended towards arealist style rather than the emotive style of latershōjo manga.[111]
Contemporaneously, the art of Jun'ichi Nakahara was significantly influencingkashi-hon manga artists, especially Macoto Takahashi.[111] Takahashi incorporated Nakahara's style of drawing eyes into his own manga – large, doll-like eyes with highlights and long lashes – while gradually introducing his own stylistic elements, such as the use of dots, stars, and multiple colors to represent the iris.[111] At the end of the 1950s, Takahashi's style was adopted byMiyako Maki – one of the most popular manga artists at the time – which led to its widespread adoption by mainstreamshōjo manga magazines.[108]
From this point on, experimental eye design flourished inshōjo manga, with features such as elongated eyelashes, the use of concentric circles of different shades, and the deformation of the iris to create a glittering effect.[24] This focus on hyper-detailed eyes led manga artists to frame panels on close-ups of faces, to draw attention to the emotions being expressed by the eyes of the characters.[112] Eyes also came to serve as a marker of gender, with female characters typically having larger eyes than male characters.[103]
Among the most common concepts inshōjo manga is that ofningen kankei (人間関係, "human relationships"),[113] which refers to interpersonal relationships between characters and the interaction of their emotions.[11] Relationships between characters are central to mostshōjo manga, particularly those of friendship, affection, and love.[11] Narratives often focus on the interiority of their protagonists, wherein their emotions, feelings, memories, andinner monologue are expressed visually through techniques such as panel arrangement and the rendering of eye details.[113] Whenconflict occurs, the most common medium of exchange is dialogue and conversation, as opposed to physical combat typical inshōnen manga.[6]
Manga scholarYukari Fujimoto considers that the content ofshōjo manga has evolved in tandem with the evolution of Japanese society, especially in terms of the place of women, the role of the family, and romantic relationships. She notes how family dramas with a focus on mother-daughter relationships were popular in the 1960s, while stories about romantic relationships became more popular in the 1970s, and stories about father figures became popular in the 1990s.[114] Asshōjo manga began to focus on adolescents over children beginning in the 1970s, romantic relationships generally become more important than family relationships;[115] these romantic relationships are most often heterosexual, though they are occasionally homosexual.[114]
Characters that defy traditional roles and stereotypes surrounding gender and sexuality have been a central motif ofshōjo manga since its origins.[116]Tomboy protagonists, referred to asotenba (お転婆), appear regularly in pre-warshōjo manga.[23] This archetype has two primary variants: the "fighting girl" (as in Katsuji Matsumoto'sNazo no Kurōbaa, where a girl takes up arms to defend the peasants of her village), and the "crossdressing girl" (as in Eisuke Ishida'sKanaria Ōjisama, where a princess is raised as a prince). Osamu Tezuka'sPrincess Knight represents the synthesis of these two archetypes, wherein a princess who is raised as a prince comes to face her enemies in combat.[117] These archetypes were generally popular inshōjowar fiction, which emerged in tandem with the militarization of Japan in the 1930s,[118] while an emphasis oncross-dressing arose from the popularity of the cross-dressing actresses of theTakarazuka Revue.[50]Otenba grew in popularity in the post-war period, which criticYoshihiro Yonezawa attributes to advancements in gender equality marked by the enshrinement of the equality of the sexes in theConstitution of Japan in 1947.[119]
By the end of the 1960s, sexuality – both heterosexual and homosexual – began to be freely depicted inshōjo manga. This shift was brought about in part by literalist interpretations of manga censorship codes: for example, the first sex scenes inshōjo manga were including by covering characters having sex with bed sheets to circumvent codes that specifically only forbade depictions of genitals andpubic hair.[58] The evolution of these representations of gender in sexuality occurred in tandem with the feminization ofshōjo manga's authorship and readership, as the category shifted from being created primarily by men for an audience of young girls, to being created by women for an audience of teenaged and young adult women; since the 1970s,shōjo manga has been written almost exclusively by women.[48]
Though they compose a minority ofshōjo stories overall, male-male romance manga – referred to asyaoi or "boys' love" (BL) – is a significant subgenre ofshōjo manga. Works in the genre typically focus onandrogynous men referred to asbishōnen (literally "beautiful boys"), with a focus on romantic fantasy rather than a strictly realist depiction of gay relationships.[120]Yaoi emerged as a formal subgenre ofshōjo manga in the 1970s, but its portrayals of gay male relationships used and further developed bisexual themes already extant inshōjo manga.[121] Japanese critics have viewedyaoi as a genre that permits its audience to avoid adult female sexuality by distancing sex from their own bodies,[122] as well as creating fluidity in perceptions of gender and sexuality by rejecting socially mandated gender roles.[123] Parallels have also been drawn betweenyaoi and the popularity oflesbianism in pornography,[124] with the genre having been called a form of "femalefetishism".[125]
Female-female romance manga, also known asyuri, has been historically and thematically linked toshōjo manga since its emergence in the 1970s, thoughyuri is not strictly exclusive toshōjo and has been published across manga demographic groups.[126] A relationship betweenshōjo culture and female-female romance dates to the pre-war period with stories in theClass S genre, which focused on intenseromantic friendships between girls. By the post-war period, these works had largely declined in popularity in favor of works focused on male-female romances.[127] Yukari Fujimoto posits that as the readership ofshōjo manga is primarily female and heterosexual, female homosexuality is rarely addressed.[128] Fujimoto sees the largelytragic bent of mostyuri stories, with a focus on doomed relationships that end in separation or death, as representing a fear of female sexuality on the part of female readers, which she sees as also explaining the interest ofshōjo readers onyaoi manga.[129]
Shōjo manga often featuressupernatural andhorror elements, such as stories focused onyūrei (ghosts),oni (demons), andyōkai (spirits), or which are otherwise structured aroundJapanese urban legends orJapanese folklore.[44] These works are female-focused, where both the human characters and supernatural beings are typically women orbishōnen.[130] Paranormalshōjo manga gained and maintained popularity by depicting scenarios that allow female readers to freely explore feelings of jealousy, anger, and frustration, which are typically not depicted in mainstreamshōjo manga focused on cute characters and melodramatic scenarios.[131]
Mother-daughter conflict, as well as the fear or rejection of motherhood, appear as major motif in paranormalshōjo manga; for example, stories where mothers take on the appearance of demons or ghosts, daughters of demons who are themselves transformed into demons, impious pregnancies resulting from incestuous rape, and mothers who commitfilicide out of jealousy or insanity.[132] The social pressure and oppression borne from apatriarchal Japanese society also recurs as a motif, such as a curse or vengeful ghost that originates from a murdered woman or a victim of harassment. In these stories, the curse is typically resolved by showing compassion for the ghost, rather than trying to destroy it.[133] Stories about Japanese urban legends were particularly popular in the 1970s,[134] and typically focus on stories that were popular among Japanese teenaged girls,[135] such asKuchisake-onna,Hanako-san, andTeke Teke.[136]
The relationship betweenshōjo culture and fashion dates to pre-warshōjo magazines, where artists such as Jun'ichi Nakahara illustrated fashion catalogs that included written instructions on how readers could make the depicted garments themselves. As manga grew in popularity in the post-war period,shōjo magazines continued their focus on fashion by publishing works featuring characters in elaborate outfits, or through promotional campaigns that offered clothes worn by manga characters as prizes.[137] Notable manga artists associated with this trend includeMacoto Takahashi,Masako Watanabe, andMiyako Maki,[137] the lattermost of whom had their designs serve as the foundation for the popularLicca-chan doll in 1967.[70]
By the 1970s, consumer trends shifted from making clothes toshopping for them;shōjo manga followed this trend with the appearance of stories centered on the careers of clothing designers. Manga in theotomechikku subgenre ofshōjo manga emphasizedkawaii fashion inspired byIvy League style; theotomechikku aesthetic was later adopted by women's fashion magazines such asAn An andOlive.[137][138] Some women's fashion magazines began to publish their ownshōjo manga in the 1980s, such asCUTiE (which publishedTokyo Girls Bravo byKyōko Okazaki andJelly Beans byMoyoco Anno) andZipper (which publishedParadise Kiss byAi Yazawa andTeke Teke Rendezvous byGeorge Asakura).[137][138]Cosplay began to influenceshōjo manga in the 1990s, leading to the development of titles likeSailor Moon that directly appealed to anotaku readership. This led to a split inshōjo representations of fashion between works that depicted realistic everyday fashions, and those that depicted fantastical outfits that could be cosplayed. The fashion world itself began to take an interest inshōjo manga in the 2000s, with fashion shows showcasing pieces influenced byshōjo manga or which were drawn from costumes in popularshōjo franchises such asSailor Moon.[137]
Generally, the clothing worn by characters inshōjo manga reflect the fashion trends of the era in which the series was produced.[139] Nevertheless, some common traits recur across eras: clothing adorned with ribbons or frills, and outfits that are especially feminine and child-like. Cute and ostentatious outfits are generally more common than outfits which are sexualized or modest.[140] Major inspirations includeVictorian fashion for girls – as embodied byAlice fromAlice's Adventures in Wonderland, who is often invoked by Japanese manga, magazines and brands – andballet costumes, especiallytutus.[141]
Manga in Japan is serialized inmanga magazines before being published as books andcollected volumes. To encourage repeat readership, magazines seek to foster a sense of community with their readership; this is especially true of magazines aimed at an audience of younger reader aged ten or younger, sometimes referred to asimōto (妹, "little sister"). Magazines seek to appeal to this young readership by publishing content related toanime,video games, and toys in addition to manga.[142] Supplemental materials, typically low-costnovelty items such as stickers, posters, and pens decorated with manga characters, are also used to attract readers, with the items placed in plastic bags that are attached to the magazines themselves.[143] Larger novelty items are occasionally offered bymail order in exchange for coupons that readers can clip out of the magazine.[144]
In the case of bothimōto and magazines aimed at older readers, referred to asonēsan (お姉さん, "big sister"), readers are invited to submit their opinions on current manga serials through letters and polls.[145] Often, a random survey respondent will receive a prize. Publishers use insights collected from these polls to change plotlines, highlight a secondary character, or end a series that is unpopular. These polls are also used when determining which manga to adapt into derivative works, such as anime and video games.[145]
In addition to survey responses, letters from readers are used as a means to gauge audience opinion and develop a sense of community. These letters are sent to publishers, but addressed directly at the authors themselves.[146] The content of these letters ranges from questions for the author, anecdotes from their daily lives, and drawings; some letters are published in the magazines themselves.[147] Meetings between readers and authors also occur regularly. These may be organized by the publisher, who select a group of readers to bring to their offices on a prize trip, or as afield trip organized by schools. In both cases, these visits strengthen the bond between reader and publisher, while also providing the publisher with insights into their readership.[146]
Manga publishers often discover new authors through their readership, who are actively encouraged to submit stories and receive feedback from the magazine's editors.[41] This system of talent discovery and development is not unique toshōjo manga, though the practice originates in pre-war girls' magazines, where female readers were invited to submit novels and short stories.[148]Imōto magazines develop this system from a young age with the aim of having adult artists one day publish manga in the magazines they read when they were children, whileonēsan magazines typically have readers and artists who are of a similar age.[73] By developing a system the authors of manga in a magazine were formerly readers, the distance between the two is reduced and a sense of community is fostered.[149]
Did you know that in the early 20th century France was born "Shōjo Art," a form of expression said to be linked to Japanese shoujo manga?
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