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Sexuality in China has undergone dramatic changes throughout time. These changes can be categorized as "sexual revolution".[1]Chinese sexual attitudes, behaviors, ideology, and relations have especially gone through dramatic shifts in the past four decades due to reform and opening up of the country.[1] Many of these changes have found expression in the public forum through a variety of behaviors and ideas.[1] These include, but are not limited to the following cultural shifts: a separation ofsex andmarriage, such aspre- andextramarital sex; a separation of sex fromlove andchild-bearing such asinternet sex andone-night stands; an increase in observablesexual diversity such ashomo- andbisexual behavior andfetishism; an increase in socially acceptable displays and behaviors of femalesexual desire; a boom in thesex industry; and a more open discussion of sex topics, includingsex studies at colleges, media reports, formal publications, online information, extensivepublic health education, andpublic displays of affection.[1]
As can be seen by these developments, China no longer exerts strict control over personal sexual behavior.[2] Sex is increasingly considered something personal and can now be differentiated from a traditional system that featured legalizedmarital sex and legal controls overchildbirth. The reduction in controls onsexual behavior has initiated a freer atmosphere forsexual expression. More and more people now regardsexual rights as basichuman rights, so that everyone has the right and freedom to pursue his or her own sexual bliss.[3]
Change in the field ofsexuality reveals not only a change of sexual attitudes and behaviors but also a series of related social changes via the process ofsocial transformation. From thesociological perspective, there have been several main factors that have created the current turning point in the contemporary Chinese social context.
Since the early 1980s sex and sexuality have become prominent themes of public debate in China, after three decades of Maoist rule during which discourses on sexuality were subject to stringent ideological controls.[4]
The denial of the ideals of theCultural Revolution, during which sex was used as a political tool to control people, is an influential factor in making changes in Chinese society.[3] During the Cultural Revolution, individual sexual preferences were supposed to give way to lofty revolutionary ideals. Extramarital affairs were portrayed as a degenerate lifestyle, and consensual pre-marital sex was immoral.Homosexuality was illegal and would be punished under the statutes forhooliganism. A person had to be sexually well-behaved in order to get a promotion or advance in his or hercareer.[5]
Reforms in the area of sexuality show a lessening amount of government control over individuals' private life. Many sex-related issues and personal lifestyles are no longer relegated to the field ofpolitics and thus exempt from severe legal punishment or moral condemnation. Sex has been returned to the personal sphere under the domain of self-management. These changes can be seen in the weakened interference and control of the government in sex-related areas, strengthened sexual resources in the open market, a diversity of sexual lifestyles, and a strong appeal for sexual rights as human rights.
For instance, the government's control of personal lives has gradually retreated since the passing of the new marriage registration principles in October 2003, which again simplified the processes ofmarriage anddivorce. The committed parties no longer need certification or confirmation from their place of work or the local Resident Committee to get married or divorced. The pre-marital physical, which among other things once contained an indication of the woman'svirginity, is no longer obligatory. The new principles reflect a greater respect for human rights, a protection of marital freedom, and a change in the governmental function with regards to sexual issues.
At the same time, some major social policies have also played an important part. For example, the side effect of the family planning policy is to promote a separation of sexual behavior fromreproductive purposes. If a couple can give birth to one child only, sexual behavior is no longer solely practiced to produce babies but also for pleasure. Changes in the legal code have reflected this while also publicly acknowledging sex as a pursuit of happiness.
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Under recent policies, the social economy has seen stable andsustainable growth, especially in big cities.[6] Material wealth and an increase inquality of life have broughtoptimism andconsumerism which continually send messages to the individual that it is acceptable to seek sexual happiness.[3]
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Varioussex products are now openly sold in the market. Sexual information is spreading directly or indirectly through such public media as street-sideadvertising. Fewer people turn away when they see intimate behavior between lovers in public.Condomvending machines are seen oncampuses. Products forsafe sex are available inconvenience stores around city. Even majorradio andtelevision stations have started picking up on sex-related topics. Educational programs on sex have become popular.Video shops, big or small, sell sexually oriented films produced either by domestic or foreign directors. More sexual information can also be quickly and easily found on theInternet. Intermingled information, good or bad, has pushed aside many of the traditionalsexual taboos and thus shaken the norm of sexual practice.[citation needed][7]
The pursuit ofprofit may well push sexual minorities such asgays andlesbians to appeal for their rights not just for legal reasons but also to tap into their particular market niches.[5] In a stable, developing economy and consumer culture, an emphasis on individual enjoyment and a respect for differentiation and diversity are now well established and perhaps even flourishing in an atmosphere of confidence and optimism.
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One very important factor driving the social change in contemporary China is the great changes in and reorganization of social stratification.[8] One of the most important features iswhite collar workers — the rise of the newmiddle class in China. The new middle class tends to stress their personal happiness and pay more attention to their own quality of life. Goods such as lifestyle magazines are priced according to the income of the target audience. These includepinwei magazines which market high quality or luxury goods, men's health magazines which promote muscled physiques, and erotic magazines depicting both men and women.[9]
Based on observations, all the visible changes in sexual discourse — including those ingay culture — can be considered a part of middle class culture. Most of the related website owners and participants belong to the white collar workers group. The new lifestyle in sexuality fields such as theDINK — "double income, no kids"—family, single groups, and cohabitating couples who violate the traditional sex norms are led by middle-class people. They are also the target groups for most gay bars, dating parties, so-called "dating on Saturday" programs, and sports groups, among others, in cities.
The rise and growth of this middle class has the potential to produce various sexualemancipation discourses, including homosexuality, to break the silence in Chinese society.
Since China adopted the policies of opening up and market reform, globalization has meant that there have been many people traveling across countries and from one region to another in China. It means information sharing, product sharing, capital flow, and value sharing, which increasingly includes some basic understanding of sexual rights,gender equality, andhuman rights. The country's various projects on sexuality,reproductive health, andAIDS prevention each have raised people's awareness of sexuality. Some non-profit international or national organizations are also working in China, while at the same time the international academic community, together with Chinese scholars, is sponsoring workshops and conferences for research on sexuality.[10]
Popularization ofhigher education has become one of the major changes inChinese education.[11] According to recent statistics publicized by theShanghai Education Commission, the gross entrance rate into higher education in Shanghai is 55 percent, ranking first in the country.Beijing comes a close second, at 53 percent. In the same year, the nation's gross entrance rate into higher education has not yet reached 19 percent. More than half of the population aged 18 to 22 in Shanghai and Beijing can get access to some form of higher education.
The impact of higher education has been significant. The younger generation may adopt a different sexual ideology from the older generation because they have more opportunities to get exposure to humanities andsocial sciences.[11] They are more geared toward the pursuit of equality, freedom, and self-realization. At the same time, society pays more and more attention to eliteintellectuals such as professors, researchers, lawyers, and policy-making consultants. Their opinions and ideas are expressed to the public in media reports and at conferences. The spreading of knowledge has been the most influential way to eliminate sex discrimination and sex inequality.[11]
The Fourth UN Conference on Women was held in Beijing in 1995.[12]The government sponsored the conference and then signed the UN documents pledging gender equality, and official women's organizations and feminist activists and scholars have been fighting against gender discrimination and working on achieving gender equality. Their struggle has permeated many aspects of the people's social lives.[failed verification][13]
Mainstreamfeminist discourse in China tends to ignore sexuality issues, considering those topics either unimportant or as stirring up unnecessary trouble. Nevertheless, the critical thinking of feminist discourse has challenged stereotyped gender roles, including sexuality roles. The latter especially has influenced many young people.[13]
Feminist discourse in sexuality aims to redefine women's roles in sexual contexts. It critiques traditional double standards governing sexual behavior, challenging norms that prescribe men to be assertive and proactive while portraying women as passive and inert. These standards include expectations of men having stronger sexual desires compared to women, and societal norms surrounding sexual experience and virginity. Feminist discourse also addresses inequalities in sexual expectations, advocating for women to assert their desires and prioritize their own satisfaction in sexual encounters. The critical feminist discourse is also rewriting gender views in Chinese society. Some feminist scholars have started to emphasize women's sexual rights and the diversity of sexuality among Chinese women. Thus, China's sexual revolution is also a women's sexual revolution, as evidenced by these trends.[13]
While women in previous generations were expected to marry in their twenties, many highly educated women are deciding to hold off on marriage into their 30s or longer. Their increased economic power has given them autonomy so they don't need to rely on a spouse. But the Chinese media has still given them a derogatory name,shengnu (剩女) or "leftover women".[14]
In 2005, China added new provisions to theLaw on Women's Right Protection to include sexual harassment.[15] In 2006 "The Shanghai Supplement" was drafted to help further define sexual harassment in China.[16]
Themedia serves as a catalytic agent for the sexual revolution in China. Theinternet, in particular, stands out as one of the most influential agents, exerting significant impact on the Chinese population by fostering alliances, sharing knowledge, and offering a platform for diverse voices to be heard. Many individuals have embraced their sexual identities largely due to the Internet. It serves as a potent channel for people to connect with sexual partners, coordinate offline activities, or simply access sexual knowledge and information.[17]
The Internet has also played a significant role in promoting lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) identities in China. Since the late 1990s, members of the LGBT community have utilized the Internet to access and share information, build relationships, and foster queer identities and communities. However, despite the apparent growth of the LGBT community in the global online sphere, there are constraints. Some constraints are influenced by socio-economic factors. Certain gay, lesbian, and queer individuals may lack the financial means to own a computer and have home Internet access, leading them to rely on Internet cafes where they may need to avoid specific websites to evade monitoring by others. Other constraints are politically motivated. Websites catering to the gay and lesbian community often have short lifespans due to government internet regulations and controls. Additionally, despite the increasing online presence of LGBT identities, the community remains marginalized within China's dominant discourse on sexuality. Traditional Chinese media outlets seldom acknowledge LGBT identities, let alone support and validate the community.[18]
InChinese language,xingkaifang (性开放) is the phrase to describe the sexual opening-up,[19] "aglobalizing sexual culture prevailing China."[19]Urbanization in China has been accelerating the sexual revolution by providing people with more private space and freedom to enjoy sex, as compared with what was afforded by the traditional countryside way of life. TheInternet provides even more powerful support and makes it possible for many people to remainanonymous, to surf the Internet from one website to another, to write their ownblogs, and to express what they want in an environment where there is much less prying by co-workers, neighbors, or other peer groups and less judgments put upon their behavior.However,Internet censorship in China does remain an issue. Chinese government has successfully blocked activists from participating political discourse on the internet.[20]
ThePRC Government still regulates sexuality to a greater degree than the governments ofWestern countries. In 2010,Ma Xiaohai, a 53-year-oldcomputer science professor,[21] was sentenced to 31⁄2 years in prison[21] for organisingwife-swapping events,[22] breaking the "group licentiousness law" (聚众淫乱罪).
The proposedLove Land sex theme park inChongqing, southwestChina, was never opened due to government pressure. ThePRC Government suspended its construction in May 2009 and ordered it demolished for being vulgar and explicit.[23][24] The park was to include displays of giantgenitalia and naked bodies, and host an exhibition on thehistory of human sexuality along with sex technique workshops.[25] The closure is a reflection of the conservatism with regard to sex in China.[26] The theme park was originally due to be opened in October 2009, but was demolished earlier that year, since it was deemed to be a negative influence onChinese society.[27][28][29]
The importance ofAIDS prevention in China has been stressed by both the global society and the Chinese government.[30] Such an increase in concern can be a double-edged sword for the sexual revolution in China. It provides both opportunities and risks. Sexuality has to be openly discussed because of AIDS concerns. For example, in the summer of 2005,China Central Television discussed the topic of AIDS under the title "Homosexuality: Confronting is Better than Evading." Scholars and activists have gained the legitimacy to talk publicly about the so-called "high risk" groups such as gay men and sex workers and have been developing strategies to work together with the government, replacing strategies of attacking the "evil" with models for caring for those at risk.[30]
Sexuality, including homosexuality, has started to enter the public forum. The whole process is still ongoing, but it is breaking the silence on sexuality taboos.[31] AIDS concerns also bring funding, and many organizations are working to fight the illness. The related knowledge and information on sexuality is spreading continuously among Chinese people, and it also strongly helps people to overcome thestereotypes,bias andignorance regarding AIDS and sexual health issues.[30]
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