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Sex tourism is the practice of traveling to foreign countries, often in theGlobal South, with the intention of engaging in paid sexual activity or relationships.[1][2] TheWorld Tourism Organization of theUnited Nations has acknowledged that this industry is organized both within and outside the structured laws and networks created by them.[3]
Sex tourism is commonly regarded as atransnational challenge, as it can be seen to target marginalised demographics in developing nations, such as countries in the Americas or Southeast Asia. The chief ethical concerns arise from: the economic gap between sex solicitor and sex worker, thesexual trafficking of victims, potential exploitation of minors, and the sex solicitor taking advantage of the ease with which they may engage with sex workers. These groups and individuals are subject to the foreignprostitution laws of the destination's jurisdiction, often resulting in exploitation and abuse. Prostitution involving minors is formally illegal in all countries. However, in practice, enforcement varies, and child prostitution occurs freely in some regions due to systemic issues such as corruption or inadequate legal protections.
Sex tourism is known to be a multibillion-dollar industry,[4] with service industries such as the airline, taxi, restaurant and hotel industries profiting.[5] The bulk of sex tourism involves men traveling from countries in theGlobal North to countries in theGlobal South, such as inEast and Southeast Asia andLatin America.[6] Although rarer,female sex tourism also exists.
This particular industry of prostitution is a reason for male travels but has been criticised due to fueling trafficking[7] and is extremely profitable. Many countries have tried to prohibit this type of tourism, as it preys on vulnerable children and marginalised women, and have made efforts to change the type of tourists coming.[8]
Ethical issues arise due to the situations of participating parties; many victims ofprostitution are from low-income backgrounds usually located in underdeveloped societies whose only means for providing basic needs is to engage in sexual services.[7]
Government and law enforcement often do not place priority on policing prostitution and sex trafficking.[9] For example, inCambodia, the Cambodian government has previously overlooked tourists raping or grooming with Cambodian adolescents.[10]
Individuals are not exempt from prosecution. Sex tourism as recognised by theCDC supportshuman trafficking and slavery.[11] Even ifprostitution is legal in a country or region, human trafficking, sexual encounters with a minor, andchild pornography are almost universally criminal in nature and individuals caught breaking these laws can be prosecuted. Citizens of any foreign country must abide by the laws of the country in which they hold citizenship in addition to the local laws of the country they are visiting, including laws regardingconsent.[12]
Sex tourists are most often male and coming from "Western world" countries. However, the idea that those engaging with sex tourism are entirely white is a misconception - South Koreans spent 12 billion USD on prostitution in 2015.[13] The most common destinations for these sex tourists is to visit less economically developed nations inSoutheast Asia such asThailand, thePhilippines,Vietnam, andCambodia, as well asNepal andThe Gambia. Countries in Latin America likeMexico,Brazil, andCuba are also common.[14][15][16] Cambodian author and trafficking victimSomaly Mam has described in detail how the government overlooked child sex trafficking to Western males.[17]
AuthorKajsa Ekis Ekman writes in her book Being and Being Bought - Prostitution, Surrogacy and the Split Self, that the reason Thailand today has become a sex tourism hub is due to the Vietnam War.[18] The Thai government made an agreement with the US Army to provide brothels ("rest and recreation centers") for soldiers on leave. These soldiers would, after the war ended, go back and engage in sex buying or start brothels themselves.
A study conducted by the non-profit public charityProCon, revealed the percentage of men who had paid for sex at least once in their lives between 1994 and 2010. It found the highest rates were located in Cambodia, where 59–80% of men had paid for sex at least once. Thailand was a close second with an estimated 75% of men, followed by Italy at 16.7–45%, Spain at 27–39%, Japan at 37%, the Netherlands at 13.5–21.6%, and the United States 15.0–20.0%.[19]
Challenges in gathering data has made it hard to find out the exact number of people who work in the sex tourism industry. Estimates show 24.9 million victims that are trapped inmodern-day slavery, 4.8 million (about 19%) were sexually exploited.[20] It is estimated that about 21% of the total victims of commercial sexual exploitation are children,[21] with theUS Department of State estimating that over one million children are trafficked for sex throughout the world. The sex tourism industry often preys on those that are the most vulnerable, potentially explaining why children and women are more likely to be forced into the industry.[22]
Globally, there are different cultural attitudes towards sex tourism. In less developed countries for example, families in poor rural areas may sell their children to human traffickers, who will take the children to major cities to work in the sex industry.[23][pages needed] In Thailand for example, women will support their husbands by becoming prostitutes.[23][pages needed] To send daughters into the sex industry, particularly in less developed countries, can often be seen as a viable source of income available to struggling families from low socioeconomic backgrounds.
The cultural attitudes of sex tourism in highly developed countries such asAustralia however where sex trafficking is illegal and highly policed can offer a different perspective to those of low socioeconomic backgrounds. Brothels are still vivid within states such as New South Wales, Tasmania and Victoria where people can exchange money for sex. Recent studies suggest that sex slavery is still happening in Australia, exploiting the vulnerability of individuals and families from poor backgrounds.[24]
Sex tourism can evade the shame associated with prostitution in one’s home country. In a forum on sex work in the Philippines and Thailand, a member stated “we see that everybody else is relaxed and happy paying for sex and this leads to a feeling of liberation because there isn’t the sense of guilt or embarrassment that we might feel if we were with a prostitute back home”[25]. Those engaging in sex tourism often seek to neutralize behaviour. In Weitzer (2025)[26], it is recognized that sex tourists “deny injury” (p. 4), by claiming sex workers are working consensually and of their own free will. Further, both those paying for and providing services of sex tourism often attribute the need for sex tourism to wider issues of global economic oppression. For example, most Southeast Asian sex workers send portions of their earnings to support their family members, leading to sex work being viewed as reciprocal care/providing for the public good[27]. Here, it is important to note that coercion occurs because of institutionalized norms and dire needs (e.g., a woman must engage in sex work out of necessity to support her siblings financially), not just direct force.
Male tourists, sometimes known assexpats (expatriate +sex tourist), joinonline communities in which they share advice on destinations[28][29] and, although it is not among the most common cases, there is the category of "girlfriend experience" which, in some cases, evolves into an emotional relationship.[28][30]
General attitudes towards sex work are complex and often regarded as controversial.[23][pages needed] Many countries where tourists come from can have harsher attitudes towards sexual services.[9] Often the men who travel seeking to pay for sex may do so because it is much harder to engage in sex work in their home countries. Furthermore, in some countries, such as Cambodia and Thailand, this practice is considered commonplace, and men who do not engage in commercial sex may be considered unusual by their peers.[19]
Sociologists from theUniversity of Leicester conducted a research study for theEconomic and Social Research Council and End Child Prostitution and Trafficking campaign, which interviewed over 250Caribbean sex tourists.[31] Amongst their findings were:
Despite a great deal of interest in sexual tourism amongst theorists, detailed studies of cultural attitude are rare,[32] regardless of the increasing accessibility of group studies in the past three decades.[33][34]
Sex tourism has implications for all nations involved.[9] Economically, sex tourism is encouraged by the tourist sectors of destination countries. It draws wealthy individuals with the allure of cheap, unstigmatised sexual activities, and stimulates the economy of poorer nations. This line of sex work ensures a consistent flow of income into developing countries' economies.[35]
In an article published by theUniversity of Chicago, it is argued that the promotion of sex tourism caters to tourists by enticing racial and ethnic stereotypes.[36] This in turn creates ethical and policy implications, as colonial and traditional attitudes reinforce inequality between the groups.[36] The state plays a vital part in this interaction, as governments create financially motivated barriers when asked to formulate more progressive and ethical policy.[36]
Sex work may yield higher wages than work in other sectors, and can encourage engagement with the industry for those seeking to achieve a much higher quality of life.[35] This economic temptation can often lead to sexual exploitation of children.[35] Young girls and adolescent women are some of the most common to be sold into slavery or transported across national borders to work in the commercial sex industry.[35]
Sex tourism can perpetuate histories and ongoing narratives of colonialism. In Thailand, Bangkok’s red-light district, Thaniya Road, is frequented by 1.5 million Japanese men annually, seeking Thai sex workers[37]. According to Hung (p. 3),[38] "the encounter with poverty is seen as a primary factor that propels the financially disadvantaged and marginalized cohorts to work as commercial sex workers". Hence, beginning in the field of sex work is often a decision based upon legacies of colonialism, violence, and the global political economy.
The sex tourism industry offers a market for gay, bisexual and bi-curious tourists. Studies suggest that gay sex tourism has similar motivations to non-gay sex tourism.[39] These studies suggest, "leisure activities and holidays have a particular significance forgay men, as they provide an opportunity for constructing, confirming and/or changing their sexual identity."[40]
Popular gay sex tourism markets can be found inBangkok,Gran Canaria,Ibiza,Sardinia,Sicily andFire Island.[41] Similar to heterosexual sex tourism markets, some arrangements may be monetary and others may not. Different places have different ways of identifying their interest in such arrangements. For example, inRio de Janeiro, Brazil, gay sex tourism has become a popular niche hosting a racially diverse market. The workers there are called "Michês" and stand out by wearing bright blue towels and often work insaunas.[42]
Over recent years, adult-only sex resorts have become a popular alternative for travellers wanting to experience consensual sex abroad whilst avoiding the ethical issues of paid sexual activity. Those resorts can be characterised as safe, consensual spaces, and sexually positive nature, where all expressions of gender, orientation, and relationships are free of any pressure.[43] These resorts largely occur inMexico and theCaribbean. Certain establishments will be clothing-optional resorts, where travellers can meet and make use of "playrooms".[43]
Some sex tourists travel in order to engage in sex with children. While it is criminal in most countries, this industry is believed to involve as many as 2 million children around the world.[44]Thailand is considered to have the worst child sex trafficking record, followed closely byBrazil.[45]
"Child sex tourists may not have a specific preference for children as sexual partners but take advantage of a situation in which children are made available to them for sexual exploitation. It is often the case that these people have travelled from a wealthier country (or a richer town or region within a country) to a less-developed destination, where poorer economic conditions, favourable exchange rates for the traveller and relative anonymity are key factors conditioning their behaviour and sex tourism."[46]
In an effort to eradicate the practice, many countries have enacted laws that allow the prosecution of their citizens forchild abuse that occurs outside their home country, even if it is not against the law in the country where the incident took place. This is evident in America, under the United StatesProtect Act.[47] In the United Kingdom, the Sexual Offences Act 2003 allows for prosecution in British criminal courts of British citizens who commit sexual offences against children while traveling abroad; this legislation was used to prosecuteRichard Huckle in 2016.[48] In Ireland, the Criminal Law (Sexual Offences) Act 2017[49] gives worldwide jurisdiction to prosecutors for sexual offences committed against children outside the state, and was used to prosecute Kieran Creaven for sexual acts with a child and producing child pornography in The Philippines in 2021.[50]The Code of Conduct for the Sexual Exploitation of Children in Travel and Tourism is an international organisation composed of members of thetourism industry andchildren's rights experts with the purpose to eradicate the practice of child sex tourism.
UNICEF notes that sexual activity is often seen as a private matter, making communities reluctant to act and intervene in cases of sexual exploitation.[51] These attitudes make children far more vulnerable to sexual exploitation. Most exploitation of children takes place as a result of their absorption into the adult sex trade where they are exploited by local people and sex tourists.[51] TheInternet provides an efficient global networking tool for individuals to share information on destinations and procurement.[51]
In cases involving children, the U.S. has relatively strict domestic laws that hold accountable any American citizen or permanent resident of the U.S. who travels abroad for the purpose of engaging in illicit conduct with a minor.[51] As of 2009, sex tourism and human trafficking remain fast-growing industries.[51]
Regulations and government involvement can be seen to have a positive impact on the community. It is argued that, by decriminalising prostitution, a government can protect sex workers under labor laws accessible by workers in other fields.[52] For example, in theNetherlands, sex workers have access to unlimited freeSTI testing.[52]
A growing crisis in Southeast Asia is online coercion of children into sexual exploitation, perpetuated by the lack of e-regulations and corresponding policies existing in states such as Cambodia and Thailand (Hung 2023)[53]. On an international scale, it is naive to insist upon the complete shutdown of sex industries that keep countries’ economies afloat and support many vulnerable families. Instead, governments and international organizations must investigate solutions to address gender-based marginalization in education and job markets, mitigate violence and child exploitation in the sex tourism sphere, and address the global political economy that subjugates the Global South to intensive and dangerous labour.
The criminalisation of sex-related jobs may be seen to increase workers' vulnerability toHIV by escalating stigma and discernment. It is suggested that judgement towards sex workers within the healthcare community acts as a barrier to accessing regular and informed care.[52]
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One of the primary sources of opposition to sex tourism is child sex tourism. This act is internationally defined as travel to have sex with a person under 18 years of age. An example of this would be when tourists from wealthy countries take advantage of legal prostitution, lower consent ages, and the lack of extradition laws in order to engage in sex with minors in foreign countries.[54] Developed nations with more conservative views of sexuality can provide a steady stream of tourists who feed the sex tourism industry.[54] Human rights organisations and governments argue that this pattern creates an incentive for trafficking of children and violation of children's human rights.[8]
Oppositions to sex tourism also stem from concerns around the trafficking of women. TheUnited Nations Office on Drugs and Crime targets the trafficking of women and children as a central concern in their approach totransnational crime.[8]The United Nations Global Report on Trafficking in Persons states that women "comprise the vast majority" of human trafficking victims for sexual exploitation across the world.[14] They also note that women make up a relatively large portion of human trafficking offenders—about 30% of convicted human traffickers are women.[14] It can be seen that women who become involved in human trafficking were once victims of sex trafficking and sexual exploitation themselves.[23]
These factors can all contribute to the debate on human rights and their relations with sex tourism. The sex tourism industry showcases a global view in sexual exploitation, and a lack of concern for the rights and dignity of sex workers.[55] It can be argued that through the growing international porn industry, indicate a normalisation of prostitution and an increase in the exploitation of women.[55]
The legality of prostitution and enforcement of such laws varies considerably around the world.[56][57][58]
Adopted by the General Assembly of the World Tourism Organization at its eleventh session - Cairo (Egypt), 17–22 October 1995 (Resolution A/RES/338 (XI))
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