Sesame (/ˈsɛsəmi/;[2][3]Sesamum indicum) is a plant in the genusSesamum, also calledbenne.[4] Numerous wild relatives occur in Africa and a smaller number in India. It is widelynaturalized in tropical regions around the world and is cultivated for its edible seeds, which grow in pods. World production in 2018 was 6 million tonnes (5.9 million long tons), withSudan,Myanmar, andIndia as the largest producers.
Sesame seed is one of the oldestoilseed crops known, domesticated well over 3,000 years ago.Sesamum has many other species, most being wild and native tosub-Saharan Africa.S. indicum, the cultivated type, originated in India. It tolerates drought conditions well, growing where other crops fail. Sesame has one of the highest oil contents of any seed. With a rich, nutty flavor, it is a common ingredient in cuisines around the world. Like other foods, it can triggerallergic reactions in some people and is one of the nine most commonallergens outlined by theFood and Drug Administration.
The word "sesame" is fromLatinsesamum andGreek σήσαμον:sēsamon; which in turn are derived from ancientSemitic languages such asAkkadianšamaššamu.[5] From these roots, words with the generalized meaning "oil, liquid fat" were derived.[6]
The word "benne" was first recorded inEnglish in 1769; it comes from the African American creoleGullahbenne, which in turn derives fromMalinkebĕne.[7][4]
Sesame seed is considered to be the oldestoilseed crop known to humanity.[8] The genus has many species, and most are wild and native to sub-Saharan Africa.[9]Sesamum indicum, the cultivated type,[10][11] originated in India.[6][12][9]
Archaeological remnants of charred sesame dating to about 3500–3050 BC shows that sesame was domesticated in theIndian subcontinent at least 5500 years ago.[13][14] Thearchaeobotanist Dorian Q. Fuller states that trading of sesame between Mesopotamia and the Indian subcontinent occurred by 2000 BC.[15] It is possible that theIndus Valley civilization exportedsesame oil toMesopotamia, where it was known asilu inSumerian andellu inAkkadian, similar to the Dravidian languagesKannada andMalayalameḷḷu, Tamileḷ.[16]
Sesame was cultivated in ancient Egypt.[17] Egyptians called itsesemt, and it is included in the list of medicinal drugs in the scrolls of thec. 1550 BCEbers Papyrus. Excavations of King Tutankhamen uncovered baskets of sesame among other grave goods, suggesting that sesame was present in Egypt by 1350 BC.[18] Sesame was grown and pressed to extract oil at least 750 BC in the empire ofUrartu.[14] Others believe it may have originated inEthiopia.[19]
Historically, sesame was favored for its ability to grow in areas that do not support the growth of other crops. It is a robust crop that needs little farming support—it grows in drought conditions, in high heat, with residual moisture in soil after monsoons are gone or even when rains fail or when rains are excessive. It can be grown by subsistence farmers at the edge of deserts, earning it the name of survivor crop from the sesame breeder Derald Ray Langham.[20]
Sesame is a perennial plant growing 50 to 100 cm (1 ft 8 in to 3 ft 3 in) tall, with opposite leaves 4 to 14 cm (2 to 6 in) long with an entire margin; they are broadlanceolate, to 5 cm (2.0 in) broad, at the base of the plant, narrowing to just 1 cm (0.39 in) broad on the flowering stem. The flowers are tubular, 2.5 to 3 cm (0.98 to 1.18 in) long.[21] The flowers vary in colour, from white to pink or purple.[22]
The fruit is acapsule, normally pubescent. The length of the fruit capsule varies from 2 to 3 cm (0.79 to 1.18 in), its width varies between 0.6 and 1.2 cm (0.24 and 0.47 in); there are four locules. The seeds are either white or black.[21]
Sesame seeds are small. Their sizes vary widely by cultivar. Typically, the seeds are 3 to 4×2×1 mm (0.12 to 0.16×0.08×0.04 in). The seeds are ovate, slightly flattened, and somewhat thinner at the eye of the seed (hilum) than at the opposite end. The mass of 100 seeds sampled from a market inIbadan, Nigeria is 0.203 g, meaning that one gram of sesame consists of around 493 seeds.[23]
Sesame varieties have adapted to many soil types. The high-yielding crops do best on fertile, well-drained, soils with a neutral pH. However, these have a low tolerance for soils with high salt and water-logged conditions. Commercial sesame crops require 90 to 120 frost-free days. Warm conditions above 23 °C (73 °F) favor growth and yields. While sesame crops can grow in poor soils, the best yields come from properly fertilized farms.[14][25]
Flowering depends on photoperiod and cultivar. The photoperiod also affects the seed's oil content: increased photoperiod increases oil content. The oil content of the seed is inversely proportional to its protein content.[14] Sesame is drought-tolerant, in part due to its extensive root system. However, it requires adequate moisture for germination and early growth. While the crop survives drought and the presence of excess water, the yields are significantly lower in either condition. Moisture levels before planting and flowering affect yield the most.[14] Most commercial cultivars of sesame are intolerant of waterlogging. Rainfall late in the season prolongs growth and increases loss to dehiscence, when the seedpod shatters, scattering the seed. Wind can also cause shattering at harvest.[14]
Sesame seeds are protected by a capsule that bursts when the seeds are ripe. The time of this bursting, or "dehiscence", tends to vary, so farmers cut plants by hand and place them together in an upright position to continue ripening until all the capsules have opened. The 1943 discovery of anindehiscent mutant (analogous tononshattering in cereals) led breeders to try to create a high-yield variety that does not drop its seeds. Despite some progress, dehiscence continues to limit production.[14] Agronomists inIsrael are working on modern cultivars of sesame that can be harvested by mechanical means.[26]
Since sesame seed is small and flat, it is hard to dry after harvest because the seeds pack closely together, impeding the flow of air in a drying bin. Therefore, the harvested seeds need to be as dry as possible, and then stored at 6% moisture or less. Moist seed stores can rapidly heat up and become rancid.[27]
In 2022, world production of sesame seeds was 6.7 milliontonnes, led bySudan, India, andMyanmar, which together accounted for 41% of the total (table).[28]
The white and other lighter-colored sesame seeds are common in Europe, the Americas, West Asia, and the Indian subcontinent. The black and darker-colored sesame seeds are mostly produced in China andSoutheast Asia.[29]
In the United States most sesame is raised by farmers under contract to Sesaco, which also supplies proprietary seed.[30][31]
Japan is the world's largest sesame importer. Sesame oil, particularly from roasted seed, is an important component ofJapanese cooking and traditionally the principal use of the seed. China is the second-largest importer of sesame, mostly oil-grade. China exports lower-priced food-grade sesame seeds, particularly toSoutheast Asia. Other major importers are the United States, Canada, the Netherlands, Turkey, and France.[32]
Sesame seed is a high-valuecash crop. Prices ranged between US$800 and 1,700 per tonne (810 and 1,730/long ton) between 2008 and 2010.[33][34] Prices depend on perceived quality, based on factors such as the seed's appearance, freedom from impurities, oil content of at least 40%, and sorting by size and colour.[27]
The byproduct that remains after oil extraction from sesame seeds, also called sesame oil meal, is rich in protein (35–50%) and is used as feed forpoultry andlivestock.[14][27][29]
As many seeds do, whole sesame seeds contain a significant amount ofphytic acid, which is considered anantinutrient in that it binds to certain nutritional elements consumed at the same time, especially minerals, and prevents their absorption by carrying them along as they pass through the small intestine. Heating and cooking reduce the amount of the acid in the seeds.[37] The seeds contain thelignanssesamolin,sesamin,pinoresinol, andlariciresinol.[38][39]
Sesame can trigger the sameallergic reactions, includinganaphylaxis, as seen with otherfood allergens.[43] A cross-reactivity exists between sesame and peanuts, hazelnuts and almonds.[43][44] In addition to food products derived from sesame seeds, such astahini and sesame oil, persons with sesame allergies are encouraged to be aware of foods that may contain sesame, such as baked goods.[43][44][45] In addition to food sources, individuals allergic to sesame have been warned that a variety of non-food sources may also trigger a reaction to sesame, includingcosmetics and skin-care products.[45]
Prevalence of sesame allergy is on the order of 0.1–0.2%, but higher in countries in the Middle East and Asia where consumption is more common as part of traditional diets.[43] In the United States, sesame allergy possibly affects 1.5 million individuals.[46][47]
Canada requires sesame to be labelled as an allergen.[45] In theEuropean Union, identifying the presence of sesame, along with 13 other foods, either as an ingredient or an unintended contaminant in packaged food is compulsory.[48] In the United States, the FASTER Act mandated labeling[49] from 2023.[50][51]
Contamination bySalmonella,E.coli,pesticides, or otherpathogens may occur in large batches of sesame seeds, such as in September 2020 when high levels of a common industrial compound,ethylene oxide, was found in a 250-tonne shipment of sesame seeds from India.[52][53] After detection in Belgium,recalls for dozens of products and stores were issued across theEuropean Union, totaling some 50 countries.[52][53] Products with anorganic certification were also affected by the contamination.[54] Regular governmental food inspection for sesame contamination, as forSalmonella andE. coli intahini,hummus or seeds, has found that poor hygiene practices during processing are common sources and routes of contamination.[55]
Sesame seed is a common ingredient in many cuisines. Sesame seeds, also calledbenne, were brought into 17th-century colonial America by enslaved West Africans.[56] The whole plant was used in West African cuisine. The seeds thickened soups and puddings, or were roasted and infused to produce a coffee-like drink.[18] Oil from the seeds substituted for butter, and served as a shortening for cakes.[18] The leaves on mature plants, which are rich in mucilage, can be used as a laxative as well as a treatment for dysentery and cholera.[57] After arriving in North America, the plant was grown by slaves as a subsistence staple to supplement their weekly rations.[58] InCaribbean cuisine, sugar and white sesame seeds are combined into a bar resemblingpeanut brittle and sold in stores and street corners, like Bahamian Benny cakes.[59]
In Asia, sesame seeds are sprinkled ontosushi-style foods.[60] In Japan, whole seeds are found in many salads and baked snacks, and tan and black sesame seed varieties are roasted and used to make the flavouringgomashio.[61] Ground black sesame and rice formzhimahu, a Chinese dessert and breakfast dish.[62] The seeds and oil are used extensively in India, where sesame seeds mixed with heatedjaggery, sugar, or palm sugar are made into balls and bars similar to peanut brittle or nut clusters and eaten as snacks, such aschikki.[63]
Sesame is a common ingredient in Middle Eastern cuisine. The seeds are made intotahini paste and sweethalva. It is a common component of theLevantine spice mixtureza'atar, popular throughout the Middle East.[64][65]
In Southern Italian cuisine, traditional sesame seed confections are one of many culinary remnants of theArabic period. These include a brittle-styletorrone served at Christmas known asgiurgiulena (from the Arabicjuljulàn) and a lightly sweet, seed-covered biscuit calledreginelle orsesamini.[66][67] Similar sweets are found in neighboring cultures throughout the Mediterranean.[68]
Sesame oil is sometimes usedfor cooking, though not all varieties are suitable for high-temperaturefrying. The "toasted" form of the oil (as distinguished from the "cold-pressed" form) has a distinctive pleasant aroma and taste, and is sometimes used as a tablecondiment.[69]
In myths, the opening of the capsule releases the treasure of sesame seeds, as applied in the story of "Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves" when the phrase "Open sesame" magically opens a sealed cave. Upon ripening, sesame pods split, releasing a pop and possibly indicating the origin of this phrase.[70]
^Bryan, Sarah (2015)."Benne for Good Luck".North Carolina Folklife Institute. Retrieved2021-07-26.
^Ram, Raghav; Catlin, David; Romero, Juan; Cowley, Craig (1990). "Sesame: New Approaches for Crop Improvement". In Janick, J.; Simon, J.E. (eds.).Advances in new crops. Oregon: Timber Press. pp. 225–228.
^Ogasawara, T.; Chiba, K.; Tada, M. (1988). "Sesamum indicum L. (Sesame): In Vitro Culture, and the Production of Naphthoquinone and Other Secondary Metabolites". In Y. P. S. Bajaj (ed.).Medicinal and Aromatic Plants X. Springer.ISBN978-3-540-62727-2.
^Martha, T. Roth (1958).The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (CAD) Volume 4, E. Chicago. p. 106.ISBN978-0-91-898610-8.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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^Peter, K.V. (2012).Handbook of herbs and spices Volume 2. p. 449.
^Kuo, Ping-Chung; Lin, Mei-Chi; Chen, Guo-Feng; Yiu, Tien-Joung; Tzen, Jason T. C. (2011). "Identification of methanol-soluble compounds in sesame and evaluation of antioxidant potential of its lignans".Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.59 (7):3214–3219.Bibcode:2011JAFC...59.3214K.doi:10.1021/jf104311g.PMID21391595.
^Sohouli, Mohammad Hassan; Haghshenas, Niloufar; Hernández-Ruiz, Ángela; Shidfar, Farzad (January 2022). "Consumption of sesame seeds and sesame products has favorable effects on blood glucose levels but not on insulin resistance: A systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials".Phytother Res.36 (3):1126–1134.doi:10.1002/ptr.7379.PMID35043479.S2CID246034854.
^Vittori Gouveia, Luciana de Almeida; Cardoso, Carolina Alves; de Oliveira, Glaucia Maria Moraes; Rosa, Glorimar; Moreira, Annie Seixas Bello (2016). "Effects of the Intake of Sesame Seeds (Sesamum indicum L.) and Derivatives on Oxidative Stress: A Systematic Review".Journal of Medicinal Food.19 (4):337–345.doi:10.1089/jmf.2015.0075.PMID27074618.
^Bedigian, Dorothea (2013).African Origins of Sesame Cultivation in the Americas. Springer, New York, NY.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Carney, Judith; Rosomoff, Richard (2009).In the Shadow of Slavery: Africa's Botanical Legacy in the Atlantic World. pp. 123–138.
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