 Serpent, late 18th century Italy. Civic Museum of Modena | |
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| Hornbostel–Sachs classification | 423.213 (labrosones with fingerholes with wide conical bore[1]) |
| Developed | Late 16th century |
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Theserpent is alow-pitched earlywind instrument in thelip-reed family, developed in theRenaissance era. It has atrombone-likemouthpiece, with sixtone holes arranged in two groups of threefingered by each hand. It is named for its long,conical bore bent into a snakelike shape, and unlike most brass instruments is made from wood with an outer covering of leather orparchment. A distant ancestor of thetuba, the serpent is related to thecornett and was used forbass parts from the 17th to the early 19th centuries.[4]
In the early 19th century,keys were added to improve intonation, and several upright variants were developed and used, until they were superseded first by theophicleide and ultimately by thevalved tuba. After almost entirely disappearing from orchestras, the serpent experienced a renewed interest inhistorically informed performance practice in the mid-20th century. Several contemporary works have been commissioned and composed, and serpents are again made by a small number of contemporary manufacturers.The sound ortimbre of a serpent is somewhere between abassoon and aeuphonium, and it is typically played in a seated position, with the instrument resting upright between the player's knees.
Although closely related to thecornett, the serpent has thinner walls, a more conical bore, and no thumb-hole.[5] The original serpent was typically built fromhardwood, usuallywalnut or othertonewoods likemaple,cherry, orpear, or sometimes softer woods likepoplar. In France, the instrument was made from bonding two double-S-shaped halves, each carved from a single large piece of wood. In England, it was usually made from several smaller curved tubular wooden segments, each made by gluing two hollowed halves together. The whole instrument was then glued and bound with an outer covering of leather.[6] A small number were made instead from copper or brass; one brass serpent in theMuseo internazionale e biblioteca della musica in Bologna was built in 1773 with an added outer layer of leather.[7]
The instrument uses amouthpiece about the same size as atrombone mouthpiece, originally made from ivory, horn or hardwood. The cup profiles of most historical serpent and bass horn mouthpieces were a distinctly hemispherical or ovate bowl shape, with a sharper-edged and narrower "throat" at the bottom of the cup than modern trombone mouthpieces, before expanding more-or-less conically through the shank.[8] The mouthpiece fits into thebocal orcrook, a small length of brass tubing that emerges from the top wooden segment.[6]
The serpent has sixtone holes, in two groups of three,fingered by each hand.[6] It is initially challenging to play the instrument with goodintonation, due in large part to the positions of the tone holes.[9] They are arranged mainly to be accessible to the player's fingers, rather than in acoustically correct positions, which for some of them would be out of reach.[10][11] The lower tone holes are too small to act effectively to shorten the air column, but by dampening resonances they nevertheless aid note selection and contribute to the serpent's characteristic softtimbre.[12] While early serpents were keyless, later instruments addedkeys for additional holes out of reach of the fingers to improve intonation, and extend range.[6] A mid-19th century model by London instrument makerThomas Key has 14 keys, and survives inSt Fagans National Museum of History in Cardiff, Wales.[13]
Modern replicas are made by several specialist instrument makers, employing acoustic analysis and modern fabrication materials and techniques to further improve the serpent's intonation. Some of these techniques include use of moderncomposite materials andpolymers,3D printing, and changing the placement of tone holes.[3] Swiss serpent maker Stephan Berger in collaboration with Frenchjazz musicianMichel Godard has developed an improved serpent based on studying well-preserved museum instruments, and also makes a lightweight model fromcarbon fibre.[14] English serpent player and musicologistClifford Bevan remarked that Berger's instruments are much improved, finally allowing players to approach the serpent "in partnership rather than in combat".[10] A modernbasson russe is made by French instrument maker Jérôme Wiss.[15]
The majority of surviving specimens in museums and private collections are nominallybass serpents built ineight-foot (8′) C, thus having a total tubing length of about 8 feet (2.4 m). A few slightly smaller specimens were built in D, and military serpents could sometimes vary in pitch between D♭ and B♭.[9]
Thetenor serpent (orserpet;French:serpenteau) arose in the 1960s when English early music specialist and instrument makerChristopher Monk began his efforts to produce modern reproduction serpents by first building a half-sized pattern, which equated to a tenor size in 4′ C. Through apantographicmilling process, he scaled up the pattern by 2× to carve a bass serpent. Since he could just as easily carve at 1×, he was also able to produce tenor serpents popular in serpent ensembles, and usable by players with smaller fingers. Thesoprano serpent, orworm, was built by scaling the tenor serpent by 0.5× to produce an instrument in 2′ C, two octaves higher than the standard serpent. It first appeared in the 1980s, made as a novelty instrument by Monk.[16][17] There is no repertoire or other evidence of the historical existence of these sizes.
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Thecontrabass serpent, nicknamed theanaconda and built in 16′ C one octave below the serpent, was an English invention of the mid-19th century with no historical repertoire.[19] The prototype instrument was builtc. 1840 by Joseph and Richard Wood inHuddersfield as a double-sized English military serpent, and survives in theUniversity of Edinburgh museum collection.[20][18] Its use of keys, progressively larger tone holes, and an open top tone hole make it essentially a wooden, serpent-shaped contrabass ophicleide.[21] During the serpent's modern revival, two more contrabass serpents were built in the originalserpent ordinaire form in the 1990s by Christopher Monk's workshop, by doubling the pattern for a bass serpent. They were called "George" and "George II".[17] The first, commissioned by musicologist and serpent player Philip Palmer, was owned by American trombonist and serpent playerDouglas Yeo for a time and features in some of his serpent recordings.[22] At least four other contrabass serpents have also been built: one fromPVC piping in 1986, two from box plywood based on a "squarpent" design by American serpent player and curator Paul Schmidt, and one in 2014 from spare tuba and sousaphone parts.[23]
There is little direct material or documentary evidence for the exact origin of the serpent. French historianJean Lebeuf claimed in his 1743 workMémoires Concernant l'Histoire Ecclésiastique et Civile d’Auxerre that the serpent was invented in 1590 by Edmé Guillaume, a clergyman inAuxerre, France, which is generally accepted.[24] Some scholars propose that the serpent may have evolved from large, curved basscornetts that were in use in Italy in the 16th century,[25] but the lack of knowledge of the serpent in early 17th century Italy, or surviving early serpents outside of France, counts against this idea.[26] The serpent was certainly used in France since the early 17th century, to strengthen thecantus firmus and bass voices ofchoirs inplainchant.[27] This original traditional serpent was known as theserpent ordinaire orserpent d'église (lit. 'ordinary serpent' or'church serpent').
Around the middle of the 18th century, the serpent began to appear inmilitary bands,chamber ensembles, and later inorchestras. In England, particularly in the south, the serpent was used inwest gallery music played inChurch of England parish churches and village bands until the mid 19th century.[28]
Towards the end of the 18th century, the increased popularity of the serpent inmilitary bands drove the subsequent development of the instrument to accommodatemarching ormounted players. In England, a distinctmilitary serpent was developed which had a more compact shape with tighter curves, added extra keys to improve its intonation, and metal braces between the bends to increase its rigidity and durability.[4]In France around the same time several makers produced aserpent militaire initially developed by Piffault (by whose name they are also known) that arranges the tubing vertically with an upward turned bell, reminiscent of atenor saxophone.[17]
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Several vertical configurations of the serpent, generally known asupright serpents (French:serpent droit) orbass horns, were developed from the late 18th century. Retaining the same six tone holes and fingering of the original serpent, these instruments resemble thebassoon, with jointed straight tubes that fit into a short U-shaped butt joint, and an upward-pointing bell.[4]
Among the first of the upright serpents to appear around the turn of the 19th century was thebasson russe,lit. 'Russian bassoon', although it was neither Russian nor a bassoon. The name is possibly a corruption ofbasson prusse since they were taken up by thePrussian army bands of the time.[29] Many of these instruments were built inLyon and often had thebuccin-style decorativezoomorphic bells popular in France at the time, shaped and painted like a dragon or serpent head.[4] Appearing around the same time in military bands was theserpent à pavillon (lit. 'bell serpent') which had a normal brass instrument bell, similar in flare to the laterophicleide.[30]
TheEnglish bass horn, developed by London-based French musician and inventor Louis Alexandre Frichot in 1799, had an all-metal V-shaped construction, described by German composerFelix Mendelssohn as resembling a watering can. He admired its sound however, and wrote for the instrument in several of his works, including the overture toA Midsummer Night's Dream (1826) and hisfifth "Reformation" symphony (1830),[4] although when theOverture was first published, the part was changed to ophicleide for unknown reasons.[31] The bass horn was popular in civic and military bands in Britain and Ireland, and also spread back into orchestras in Europe, where it influenced the inventors of both the ophicleide and later theBaß-Tuba.[32]
The serpent appears asserpentone in early 19th centuryItalian operatic scores by composers such asSpontini,Rossini, andBellini.[33] In Italy it was replaced by thecimbasso, a loose term that referred to several instruments; initially an upright serpent similar to thebasson russe, then the ophicleide, early forms of valvedtuba (pelittone,bombardone), and finally by the time ofVerdi's operaOtello (1887), a valvecontrabass trombone.[34]
In Paris in 1823, Forveille invented his eponymousserpent Forveille, an upright serpent with an enlarged bell section influenced by the (then newly invented) ophicleide. It is distinguished by being made from wood, brass tubing being used only for the leadpipe and first bend.[35] It became popular in bands for its improved intonation and sound quality.[4] In 1828 Jean-Baptiste Coëffet patented hisophimonocleide ("snake with one key"), one of the last forms of the upright serpent.[33] It solved a perennial problem of the serpent, its difficult and indistinct B♮ notes. The instrument is built a semitone lower in B♮ and adds a large open tone hole that keeps the instrument in C until its key is pressed, closing the tone hole and producing a clear and resonant B♮. The instrument also has a uniquepompe, a doubletuning slide that (combined with adjusting the bocal) could change the pitch by up to a major second and allow the player to switch between the differentpitch standards of the time (diapason de l'opéra anddiapason de la cathédrale).[36]
The era of upright serpents was brief, spanning the first half of the 19th century from their invention to their replacement by the ophicleide and subsequentvalved brass instruments.[37] German opera composerRichard Wagner, by the 1869 première of hisDer Ring des Nibelungen cycle, was writing his lowest brass parts for tuba and contrabass trombone.[38] Consequently, the serpent had all but disappeared from ensembles by 1900.
The serpent has enjoyed a modern revival of interest and manufacture since the mid-20th century. Christopher Monk began building his own replica cornetts and serpents and playing them inhistorically informed performances. In 1968 he and instrument maker Keith Rogers devised a method of constructing cornetts inexpensively from a composite wood-resin material, which helped to raise interest in these instruments and increase their availability. In 1976 he established the London Serpent Trio with EnglishEarly Music Consort players Andrew van der Beek and Alan Lumsden, performing new works and historical arrangements, both serious and whimsical, throughout Europe and North America.[39][40] At the same time in France, historical instrument specialist Bernard Fourtet and jazz musicianMichel Godard began promoting use of the serpent, and reintroduced serpent teaching at theConservatoire de Paris.[41] Among the graduates are Volny Hostiou, who has recorded a significant serpent discography, and Patrick Wibart, also an accomplished ophicleide player.[42][43] Wibart succeeded Godard as the serpent teacher at the Conservatoire de Paris, and also teaches serpent at theConservatoire de Versailles Grand Parc [fr].[44]
TheSerpent Newsletter, first published in 1986 as theNewsletter for United Serpents, is published twice a year and edited by Paul Schmidt. It reviews new recordings and publications, covers contemporary performances and events, as well as new discoveries, appearances in media and film, and other developments.[45]
The serpent's range typically covers the two and a halfoctaves from C2 twooctaves belowmiddle C to G4. The range can easily extend downwards to A1 or even F1 by fingering the low C note with all holes covered, and producingfalset tones, by slackening theembouchure ("lipping down"). Proficient players can play upwards to C5.[46]
Monk writes that due to its inherent mechanical and acoustical defects, the serpent is one of the more difficult wind instruments to play well.[47] Although played with an embouchure similar to that used with other brass instruments such as the trombone, the instrument is easily over-blown so the player must use a more gentle air stream. The tone holes do not always serve to shorten the air column as they do inwoodwind instruments. The lower tone holes in particular are too small and behave more like air leaks, working largely by dampening resonances in the air column, thus altering the note selection and influencing the timbre.[12] Consequently, the player must rely much more on a strong, controlled embouchure to produce the correct pitch than on other brass instruments. The serpent's natural tones with all holes covered (theharmonic series on C2) are fuller and richer than those produced with fingering, so the player must also focus on consistency of timbre and acantabile approach throughout the serpent's range.[47]
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The serpent was originally played vertically, with each hand covering one of the two sets of tone holes from above. In 1772 Abbé Lunel, serpentist atNotre-Dame de Paris, devised a way to hold the serpent horizontally, a method subsequently used in military bands.[48] Holding the serpent this way involves supporting the lower curve with the right hand under, rather than over, the lower three tone holes, thus reversing the order of the fingering.[49]
Production of pitch can be lowered by a semitone or more by slackening the embouchure given the same fingering. This is due to the serpent's coupling of a "strong" acoustical system of embouchure and mouthpiece, with the relatively "weak" system of the air column in the serpent body. This results in the mouthpiece having a stronger influence on selecting the instrument pitch than the air column.[50] The mismatch of embouchure and air column length also contributes to its timbre.[12]
Serpents were originally used as an instrument to accompany church choral music, particularly in France. For this purpose, very little was specifically written for the serpentper se; the serpent player would simply play thecantus firmus, or bass line.[24] The serpent began to be called for in orchestras by opera composers in the mid-to-late 18th century, and their subsequent adoption in military bands prompted the publication of severalmethod books, fingering charts and etudes, including duets for student and teacher.[51]
Among the serpent's first appearances in orchestral scores isGeorge Frideric Handel'sMusic for the Royal Fireworks (1749), although he later removed it. Italian composers in the early 19th century often called forserpentone, in operas byGioachino Rossini andVincenzo Bellini. Mendelssohn paired serpent with contrabassoon in his 1828 overtureCalm Sea and Prosperous Voyage andfifth "Reformation" symphony (1830), andHector Berlioz included serpent and ophicleide in his early revisions ofSymphonie fantastique (1830).
After disappearing almost entirely by the late 19th century, the serpent began to reappear in the mid-20th century infilm scores and newperiod instrument chamber ensembles. American film composerBernard Herrmann used a serpent in the scores ofWhite Witch Doctor (1953) andJourney to the Center of the Earth (1959), as didJerry Goldsmith in his score forAlien (1979).[52]
Frenchtubist and serpent specialist atParis ConservatoireMichel Godard often uses serpent in jazz and contemporary music, and has frequently collaborated withLebanese composer andoud playerRabih Abou-Khalil.[53]
Modern works for the instrument include a concerto for serpent and orchestra by English composerSimon Proctor, commissioned in 1987 to mark the first International Serpent Festival in South Carolina, where it was premièred by London Serpent Trio member Alan Lumsden in 1989.[52][54] Also premièred at the festival was composerPeter Schickele's comicP.D.Q. Bach pieceO Serpent, written for the London Serpent Trio and vocal ensemble.[55][56] Douglas Yeo premièredTemptation for serpent and string quartet, written by hisBoston Symphony Orchestra colleague, trombonist and composer Norman Bolter, at the 1999 International Trombone Festival inPotsdam, New York.[57][58] In 2008, Yeo also premièredOld Dances in New Shoes, a serpent concerto by American composerGordon W. Bowie.[59] Italian composerLuigi Morleo wroteDiversità: NO LIMIT, a concerto for serpent and strings, which premièred in Monopoli, Italy in 2012.[60]
American composerAustin Wintory'sGrammy-nominated andBAFTA-winning soundtrack for the 2012PlayStation 3 video gameJourney includes a serpent as one of the five soloists, played by California trombonist Noah Gladstone.[61]
After publishing a guide to playing techniques of the serpent in April 2024, which includes advice for composers on fingering andextended techniques, British tubist andLund University scholar Jack Adler-McKean commissioned and recorded four new contemporary works for serpent in February 2025.[62][63]
Media related toSerpents at Wikimedia Commons.
Schlesinger, Kathleen (1911). "Serpent". InChisholm, Hugh (ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.| International | |
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