The Serbs share many cultural traits with the rest of the peoples ofSoutheast Europe. They are predominantlyEastern Orthodox Christians by religion. TheSerbian language (a standardized version ofSerbo-Croatian) is official in Serbia, co-official in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo, and is spoken by the plurality in Montenegro.
The origin of theethnonym is unclear. The most prominent theory considers it ofProto-Slavic origin.Hanna Popowska-Taborska argued nativeSlavic provenance of the ethnonym,[38] claiming that the theory advances a conclusion that the ethnonym has a meaning of a family kinship or alliance, which was also argued by a number of other scholars.[39]
Genetic structure of Serbians within European context, according to three genetic systems.
According to a triple analysis –autosomal,mitochondrial andpaternal — of available data from large-scale studies onBalto-Slavs and their proximal populations, the whole genomeSNP data situates Serbs with Montenegrins in between two Balkan clusters.[40] Y-DNA results show that haplogroupsI2a andR1a together stand for the majority of the makeup, with more than 50 percent.[41][42]
According to several recent studies Serbia's people are among the tallest in the world,[43] with an averagemale height of 1.82 metres (6 ft 0 in).[44][45]
Early Slavs, especiallySclaveni andAntae, including theWhite Serbs, invaded and settledSoutheastern Europe in the 6th and 7th century.[46] Up until the late 560s, their activity was raiding, crossing from the Danube, though with limited Slavic settlement mainly through Byzantinefoederati colonies.[47] TheDanube andSava frontier was overwhelmed by large-scale Slavic settlement in the late 6th and early 7th century.[48] What is todaycentral Serbia was an important geo-strategical province, through which theVia Militaris crossed.[49] This area was frequently intruded bybarbarians in the 5th and 6th centuries.[49] The numerous Slavs mixed with and assimilated the descendants of the indigenous population (Illyrians, Thracians, Dacians, Romans, Celts).[50] White Serbs fromWhite Serbia came toan area near Thessaloniki and then they settled area between Dinaric Alps and Adriatic coast.[51] The region of "Rascia" (Raška) was the center of Serb settlement and Serb tribes also occupied parts of modern-dayHerzegovina andMontenegro.[52] Prior to their arrival to the Balkans, early Slavs were predominantly involved in agriculture, which is why they settled in areas which were cultivated even during Roman times.[53]
The first Serb states,Serbia (780–960) andDuklja (825–1120), were formed chiefly under theVlastimirović andVojislavljević dynasties respectively.[54][55] The other Serb-inhabited lands, or principalities, that were mentioned included the "countries" ofPaganija,Zahumlje,Travunija.[56][57] With the decline of the Serbian state of Duklja in the late 11th century, Raška separated from it and replaced it as the most powerful Serbian state.[58] PrinceStefan Nemanja (r. 1169–96) conquered the neighbouring territories ofKosovo,Duklja andZachlumia. TheNemanjić dynasty ruled over Serbia until the 14th century. Nemanja's older son,Stefan Nemanjić, became Serbia's first recognized king, while his younger son, Rastko, founded theSerbian Orthodox Church in the year 1219, and became known asSaint Sava after his death.[59] Parts of modern-day Montenegro,Bosnia and Herzegovina, and central Serbia would come under the control of Nemanjić.[60]
Over the next 140 years, Serbia expanded its borders, from numerous smaller principalities, reaching to a unifiedSerbian Empire. Its cultural model remained Byzantine, despite political ambitions directed against the empire. The medieval power and influence of Serbia culminated in the reign ofStefan Dušan, who ruled the state from 1331 until his death in 1355. Ruling as Emperor from 1346, his territory includedMacedonia, northern Greece, Montenegro, and almost all of modernAlbania.[61] When Dušan died, his sonStephen Uroš V became Emperor.[62]
WithTurkish invaders beginning their conquest of the Balkans in the 1350s, a major conflict ensued between them and the Serbs, the first major battle was theBattle of Maritsa (1371),[62] in which the Serbs were defeated.[63] With the death of two important Serb leaders in the battle, and with the death of Stephen Uroš that same year, theSerbian Empire broke up into several small Serbian domains.[62] These states were ruled by feudal lords, with Zeta controlled by theBalšić family, Raška, Kosovo and northern Macedonia held by theBranković family andLazar Hrebeljanović holding today'sCentral Serbia and a portion of Kosovo.[63] Hrebeljanović was subsequently accepted as the titular leader of the Serbs because he was married to a member of the Nemanjić dynasty.[62] In 1389, the Serbs faced the Ottomans at theBattle of Kosovo on the plain ofKosovo Polje, near the town ofPriština.[63] Both Lazar andSultanMurad I were killed in the fighting.[63] The battle most likely ended in a stalemate, and afterwardsSerbia enjoyed a short period of prosperity under despotStefan Lazarević and resisted falling to the Turks until 1459.[63]
The Serbs had taken an active part in the wars fought in the Balkans against the Ottoman Empire, and also organized uprisings;[64][65] because of this, they suffered persecution and their territories were devastated – major migrations from Serbia into Habsburg territory ensued.[66] After allied Christian forceshad captured Buda from the Ottoman Empire in 1686 during theGreat Turkish War, Serbs fromPannonian Plain (present-dayHungary,Slavonia region in present-dayCroatia,Bačka andBanat regions in present-daySerbia) joined the troops of the Habsburg monarchy as separate units known asSerbian Militia.[67] Serbs, as volunteers, massively joined the Austrian side.[68]
In 1688,the Habsburg army took Belgrade and entered the territory of present-dayCentral Serbia.Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden called Serbian PatriarchArsenije III Čarnojević to raise arms against the Turks; the Patriarch accepted and returned to the liberated Peć. As Serbia fell under Habsburg control, Leopold I granted Arsenije nobility and the title of duke. In early November, Arsenije III met with Habsburg commander-in-chief,General Enea Silvio Piccolomini inPrizren; after this talk he sent a note to all Serb bishops to come to him and collaborate only with Habsburg forces.[73]
AGreat Migration of the Serbs (1690) to Habsburg lands was undertaken by Patriarch Arsenije III.[74] The large community of Serbs concentrated in Banat, southern Hungary and the Military Frontier included merchants and craftsmen in the cities, but mainly refugees that were peasants.[74] Smaller groups of Serbs also migrated to theRussian Empire, where they occupied high positions in the military circles.[75][76][77]
TheSerbian Revolution for independence from the Ottoman Empire lasted eleven years, from 1804 until 1815.[78] The revolution comprised two separate uprisings which gained autonomy from the Ottoman Empire that eventually evolved towards full independence (1835–1867).[79][80] During theFirst Serbian Uprising, led by DukeKarađorđe Petrović, Serbia was independent for almost a decade before the Ottoman army was able to reoccupy the country. Shortly after this, theSecond Serbian Uprising began. Led byMiloš Obrenović, it ended in 1815 with a compromise between Serbian revolutionaries and Ottoman authorities.[81] Likewise, Serbia was one of the first nations in the Balkans to abolishfeudalism.[82] Serbs are among the first ethnic groups in Europe to form anation and a clear sense of national identity.[83]
In the early 1830s, Serbia gained autonomy and its borders were recognized, withMiloš Obrenović being recognized as its ruler. Serbia is the fourth modern-day European country, after France, Austria and the Netherlands, to have a codified legal system, as of 1844.[84] The last Ottoman troops withdrew from Serbia in 1867, although Serbia's and Montenegro's independence was not recognized internationally until theCongress of Berlin in 1878.[66]
More than half a million Serbs were killed in the territory of Yugoslavia during World War II. Serbs in occupied Yugoslavia subsequently formed a resistance movement known as theYugoslav Army in the Homeland, or the Chetniks. The Chetniks had the official support of theAllies until 1943, when Allied support shifted to the CommunistYugoslav Partisans, a multi-ethnic force, formed in 1941, which also had a large majority of Serbs in its ranks in the first two years of war. Over the entirety of the war, the ethnic composition of the Partisans was 53 percent Serb.[106][107] During the entire course of the WWII in Yugoslavia, 64.1% of all Bosnian Partisans were Serbs.[108] Later, after the fall of Italy in September 1943, other ethnic groups joined Partisans in larger numbers.[90]
At the end of the war, the Partisans, led byJosip Broz Tito, emerged victorious. Yugoslavia subsequently became a Communist state. Tito died in 1980, and his death sawYugoslavia plunge into economic turmoil.[109] Yugoslaviadisintegrated in the early 1990s, and aseries of wars resulted in the creation of five new states. The heaviest fighting occurred inCroatia,Bosnia and Herzegovina, whose Serb populations rebelled and declared independence. Thewar in Croatia ended in August 1995, with a Croatian military offensive known asOperation Storm put a stop to theCroatian Serb rebellion and causing as many as 200,000 Serbs to flee the country. TheBosnian War ended that same year, with theDayton Agreement dividing the country along ethnic lines. In 1998–99, aconflict in Kosovo between the Yugoslav Army and Albanians seeking independence erupted into full-out war, resulting in a 78-day-longNATO bombing campaign which effectively drove Yugoslav security forces from Kosovo.[110] Subsequently, more than 200,000 Serbs and other non-Albanians fled the province.[111] On 5 October 2000, YugoslavPresidentSlobodan Milosević was overthrown in a bloodless revolt after he refused to admit defeat in the2000 Yugoslav general election.[112]
According to most recent census conducted in Serbia, Croatia and Montenegro, there are nearly 7 million Serbs living in their native homelands, within the geographical borders of formerYugoslavia. In Serbia itself, around 5.5 million people identify themselves as ethnic Serbs, and constitute about 83% of the population. More than a million live inBosnia and Herzegovina (predominantly in theRepublika Srpska), where they are one of the threeconstituent ethnic groups. Serbs inCroatia,Montenegro andNorth Macedonia also have recognized collective rights, and number some 186,000, 178,000 and 39,000 people, respectively, while another estimated 96,000 live in the disputed area ofKosovo.[4] Smaller minorities exist inSlovenia, some 36,000 people, respectively.
Outside of the former Yugoslavia, but within their historical and migratory areal, Serbs are officially recognized as national minority inAlbania,[113]Romania (18,000),Hungary (7,000), as well as in theCzech Republic andSlovakia.
There were several waves of Serb emigration. The first wave took place since the end of the 19th century and lasted untilWorld War II and was caused by economic reasons; particularly large numbers of Serbs (mainly from peripheral ethnic areas such asHerzegovina,Montenegro,Dalmatia, andLika) emigrated to the United States. The second wave of emigration took place after the end ofWorld War II. At this time, members of royalistChetniks and other political opponents of communist regime fled the country mainly going overseas (United States andAustralia) and, to a lesser degree,United Kingdom. The third wave of Serb emigration, by far the largest, consisted of economic emigration beginning in the 1960s when several Western European countries signed bilateral agreements with Yugoslavia, allowing the recruitment of industrial workers to those countries; this lasted until the end of the 1980s. The major destinations for migrants wereWest Germany,Austria, andSwitzerland, and to a lesser extentFrance andSweden. That generation of diaspora is collectively known asgastarbajteri, after Germangastarbeiter ("guest-worker"), since most of the emigrants headed for German-speaking countries. These migrations left some parts of Serbia sparsely populated.[115] Later emigration took place during the 1990s, and was caused by both political and economic reasons. TheYugoslav wars caused many Serbs from Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina to leave their countries in the first half of the 1990s. Theeconomic sanctions imposed on Serbia caused an economic collapse with an estimated 300,000 people leaving Serbia during that period, 20% of which had a higher education.[116][117]
Vuk Karadžić, reformer of modern Serbian, which is the only European language whose speakers are fullydigraphic,[119] using bothCyrillic andLatin alphabets.
Serbian is an official language in Serbia and Bosnia-Herzegovina and is a recognized minority language in Montenegro (although spoken by a plurality of population), Croatia, North Macedonia, Romania, Hungary, Czech Republic and Slovakia. Older forms of literary Serbian areChurch Slavonic of the Serbian recension, which is still used for ecclesiastical purposes, andSlavonic-Serbian—a mixture of Serbian,Church Slavonic andRussian used from the mid-18th century to the first decades of the 19th century.
Serbian has activedigraphia, using bothCyrillic andLatin alphabets.[120]Serbian Cyrillic was devised in 1814 by Serbian linguistVuk Karadžić, who created the alphabet on phonemic principles.[121] Serbian Latin was created byLjudevit Gaj and published in 1830. His alphabet mapped completely on Serbian Cyrillic which had been standardized byVuk Karadžić a few years before.[122]
Loanwords in the Serbian language besides common internationalisms are mostly fromGreek,[123] German[124] and Italian,[125] while words ofHungarian origin are present mostly in the north.
TheOttoman conquest began a linguistical contact between Ottoman Turkish and South Slavic; Ottoman Turkish influence grew stronger after the 15th century.[126] Besides Turkish loanwords, also many Arabic (such asalat, "tool",sat, "hour, clock") and Persian (čarape, "socks",šećer, "sugar") words entered via Turkish, called "Orientalisms" (orijentalizmi).[126] Also, many Greek words entered via Turkish.[126] Words for hitherto unknown sciences, businesses, industries, technologies and professions were brought by the Ottoman Empire.[126] Christian villagers brought urban vocabulary from their travels to Islamic culture cities.[127] Many Turkish loanwords are no longer considered loanwords.[128]
There is considerable usage of French words as well, especially in military related terms.[124] One Serbian word that is used in many of the world's languages is "vampire" (vampir).[129][130][131][132]
Literature,icon painting, music, dance and medieval architecture are the artistic forms for which Serbia is best known. TraditionalSerbian visual art (specificallyfrescoes, and to some extenticons), as well as ecclesiastical architecture, are highly reflective of Byzantine traditions, with some Mediterranean and Western influence.[133]
Many Serbian monuments and works of art have been lost forever due to various wars, thievery and peacetime marginalizations.[134][135]
Most literature written by early Serbs was about religious themes. The founders of theSerbian Orthodox Church wrote variousgospels,psalters,menologies,hagiographies, along with essays and sermons.[159] At the end of the 12th century, two of the most important pieces of Serbian medieval literature were created– theMiroslav Gospels and theVukan Gospels, which combined handwritten Biblical texts with painted initials and small pictures.[59] TheCrnojević printing house was the first printing house in Southeastern Europe and is considered an important part of Serbian cultural history.[160]
Many Serbs have contributed to the field of science and technology. There are more Serbian scientists and scholars working abroad than in the Balkans. At least 7000 Serbs who have a PhD are working abroad.[168] Medical specialists from Serbia have performed a number of operations which have been described as pioneer works.[169][170]
Serbian American mechanical and electrical engineerNikola Tesla is regarded as one of the most important inventors in history. He is renowned for his contributions to the discipline of electricity and magnetism in the late 19th and early 20th century. Seven Serbian American engineers and scientists known asSerbo 7[171] took part in construction of theApollo spaceship.[172] Physicist and physical chemistMihajlo Pupin is best known for his landmark theory of modern electrical filters as well as for his numerous patents, whileMilutin Milanković is best known for his theory of long-termclimate change caused by changes in the position of the Earth in comparison to the Sun, now known asMilankovitch cycles.[173]Gordana Vunjak-Novakovic is a Serbian American biomedical engineer focusing on engineering human tissues forregenerative medicine,stem cell research and modeling of disease. She is one of the most highly cited scientists of all times.[174]
Most Serbian surnames are paternal, maternal, occupational or derived from personal traits. It is estimated that over two thirds of all Serbian surnames have the suffix-ić (-ић) ([itɕ]), a Slavicdiminutive, originally functioning to createpatronymics. Thus the surnamePetrović means the "son of Petar" (from a male progenitor, the root is extended with possessive-ov or-ev). Due to limited use of international typewriters and unicode computer encoding, the suffix may be simplified to-ic, historically transcribed with a phonetic ending,-ich or-itch in foreign languages. Other common surname suffixes found among Serbian surnames are-ov,-ev,-in and-ski (without-ić) which is the Slavicpossessive case suffix, thus Nikola's son becomes Nikolin, Petar's son Petrov, and Jovan's son Jovanov. Other, less common suffices are-alj/olj/elj,-ija,-ica,-ar/ac/an. The ten most common surnames in Serbia, in order, areJovanović,Petrović,Nikolić,Marković,Đorđević,Stojanović,Ilić,Stanković,Pavlović andMilošević.[184]
The identity of ethnic Serbs was historically largely based on Orthodox Christianity and on the Serbian Church in particular. The conversion of the South Slavs from paganism to Christianity took place before theGreat Schism of 1054. During the time of the Great Schism, Serbian rulers includingMihailo Vojislavljević andStefan Nemanja were Roman Catholics, with the former being a vassal of thePapal States. In 1217, the Serbian rulerStefan Nemanja II was crowned byPope Honorius III of the Roman Catholic Church. However in 1219, Nemanja II was crowned once again by the newly independent Serbian Orthodox Church. This shift solidified the Christian Orthodox religion in Serbia.[188]
With the arrival of theOttoman Empire, some Serbs converted toIslam. This was particularly, but not wholly, the case inBosnia.[189] Since the second half of the 19th century, a small number of Serbs converted to Protestantism,[190] while historically some Serbs were Roman Catholics (especially inBay of Kotor[191][192] andDalmatia; e.g.Serb-Catholic movement in Dubrovnik).[193] In a personal correspondence with author and critic dr. Milan Šević in 1932,Marko Murat complained that Orthodox Serbs are not acknowledging the Roman Catholic Serb community on the basis of their faith.[194] The remainder of Serbs remain predominantly Serbian Orthodox Christians.
Among the most notable national and ethnic symbols are theflag of Serbia and thecoat of arms of Serbia. The flag consists of a red-blue-whitetricolour, rooted inPan-Slavism, and has been used since the 19th century. Apart from being the national flag, it is also used officially inRepublika Srpska (by Bosnian Serbs) and as the official ethnicFlag of Serbs of Croatia. The coat of arms, which includes both theSerbian eagle andSerbian cross, has also been officially used since the 19th century, its elements dating back to the Middle Ages, showing Byzantine and Christian heritage. These symbols are used by various Serb organisations, political parties and institutions.[195] TheThree-finger salute, also called the "Serb salute", is a popular expression for ethnic Serbs and Serbia, originally expressingSerbian Orthodoxy and today simply being a symbol for ethnic Serbs and the Serbian nation, made by extending the thumb, index, and middle fingers of one or both hands.[196][197][198]
Serbian cuisine is largely heterogeneous, with heavy Oriental, Central European and Mediterranean influences.[204] Despite this, it has evolved and achieved its own culinary identity. Food is very important in Serbian social life, particularly during religious holidays such asChristmas,Easter and feast days, i.e.,slava.[204] Staples of the Serbian diet include bread, meat, fruits, vegetables, and dairy products. Traditionally, three meals are consumed per day. Breakfast generally consists of eggs, meat and bread. Lunch is considered the main meal, and is normally eaten in the afternoon. Traditionally,Domestic or turkish coffee is prepared after a meal, and is served in small cups.[204] Bread is the basis of all Serbian meals, and it plays an important role in Serbian cuisine and can be found in religious rituals. A traditional Serbian welcome is to offerbread and salt to guests,[205] and alsoslatko (fruit preserve). Meat is widely consumed, as is fish. Serbian specialties includekajmak (a dairy product similar toclotted cream),proja (cornbread),kačamak (corn-flour porridge), andgibanica (cheese and kajmak pie).Ćevapčići, caseless grilled and seasoned sausages made of minced meat, is thenational dish of Serbia.[204]
Šljivovica (Slivovitz) is the national drink of Serbia in domestic production for centuries, andplum is the national fruit. The international nameSlivovitz is derived from Serbian.[206] Plum and its products are of great importance to Serbs and part of numerous customs.[207] A Serbian meal usually starts or ends with plum products and Šljivovica is served as anaperitif.[207] A saying goes that the best place to build a house is where a plum tree grows best.[207] Traditionally, Šljivovica (commonly referred to as "rakija") is connected to Serbian culture as a drink used at all important rites of passage (birth, baptism, military service, marriage, death, etc.), and in theSerbian Orthodox patron saint celebration (slava).[207] It is used in numerous folk remedies, and is given certain degree of respect above all other alcoholic drinks. The fertile region ofŠumadija in central Serbia is particularly known for its plums and Šljivovica.[208] Serbia is the largest exporter of Slivovitz in the world, and second largest plum producer in the world.[209][210] Winemaking tradition in modern-day Serbia dates back to the Roman times in the 3rd century, while Serbs have been involved in winemaking since the 8th century.[211][212]
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