| Sepik | |
|---|---|
 Sediment plumes at the mouth of the Sepik (right) andRamu (left) rivers | |
 Sepik River watershed (Interactive map) | |
| Location | |
| Country | Papua New Guinea,Indonesia |
| Region | Sandaun,Papua,East Sepik |
| Physical characteristics | |
| Source | |
| • location | Victor Emanuel Range |
| • coordinates | 5°13′S141°49′E / 5.217°S 141.817°E /-5.217; 141.817 |
| • elevation | 2,170 m (7,120 ft) |
| Mouth | |
• location | Bismarck Sea,Papua New Guinea |
• coordinates | 3°50′30″S144°32′30″E / 3.84167°S 144.54167°E /-3.84167; 144.54167 |
• elevation | 0 m (0 ft) |
| Length | 1,126 km (700 mi)[1] |
| Basin size | 80,321 km2 (31,012 sq mi)[1] |
| Width | |
| • average | 400–500 m (1,300–1,600 ft)[2] |
| Depth | |
| • minimum | 2 m (6 ft 7 in)[3] |
| • average | 8–14 m (26–46 ft)[2] |
| • maximum | 35–55 m (115–180 ft) (Angoram)[4][3] |
| Discharge | |
| • location | Angoram |
| • average | 5,000 m3/s (180,000 cu ft/s)[5] |
| Discharge | |
| • location | Ambunti |
| • average | 3,615 m3/s (127,700 cu ft/s)[6] |
| Basin features | |
| Progression | Bismarck Sea |
| River system | Sepik River |
| Tributaries | |
| • left | Iram, Brucken, Oklip, Hauser, Horden, North,Yellow, Sanchi, Yimi, Nagam |
| • right | Hak, August, May, Seniap,Frieda, Wario, Wagamush, April, Karawari,Yuat,Keram, Bien |
TheSepik (/ˈsɛpɪk/)[7] is the longestriver on the island ofNew Guinea, and the third largest inOceania by discharge volume after theFly andMamberamo.[8] The majority of the river flows through thePapua New Guinea (PNG) provinces ofSandaun (formerly West Sepik) andEast Sepik, with a small section flowing through theIndonesian province ofPapua.
The Sepik has a large catchment area, and landforms that include swamplands,tropical rainforests and mountains. Biologically, the river system is often said to be possibly the largest uncontaminated freshwater wetland system in theAsia-Pacific region.[9] But, in fact, numerous fish and plant species have been introduced into the Sepik since the mid-20th century.
In 1884, Germany asserted control over the northeast quadrant of the island ofNew Guinea, which became part of theGerman colonial empire. The colony was initially managed by the Deutsche Neuguinea-Kompagnie orGerman New Guinea Company, a commercial enterprise that christened the territoryKaiser-Wilhelmsland. The first European ship to enter the Sepik estuary was theSamoa in May 1885. But the river, in fact, did not yet have a European name. It was thus termedKaiserin Augustafluß by the explorer and scientistOtto Finsch, after the German EmpressAugusta.
The wordSipik was first reported by A. Full[10] as one of two names for the watercourse—the other beingAbschima—used by the natives living at the mouth of the river. A few years later, Leonhard Schultze applied the termSepik to the entire watercourse, and it took, although Schultze also noted another name for the river,Azimar.[11] William Churchill, writing in theBulletin of the American Geographical Society, wrote "These are not names of the river, they are but names for small stretches of the river as known to the folk of this or that hamlet. We cannot reckon how many such names there may be in the course of more than 600 miles of the system." Since "there is no indigenous name for the whole stream", Churchill concluded that "This is clearly a case where a European designation may properly be applied." He advocated for Kaiserin-Augusta. But that name faded with the German loss of colonial control over the territory after World War One. The wordSepik henceforth became the official name of the river.
Of course, each language group had one or more of its own names for the river. For example, theIatmul people call the riverAvusett, a compound of "bone" (ava) and "lake" (tset).[12]
The river originates in theVictor Emanuel Range in the central highlands ofPapua New Guinea. From its mountain headwaters nearTelefomin, it travels north-west and leaves the mountains abruptly nearYapsei. From there it flows into Indonesian Papua, before turning back north-east, for the majority of its journey following the greatCentral Depression. Along its course it receives numerous tributaries from theBewani andTorricelli Mountains to the north and theCentral Range to the south, including theYuat River formed by theLai and theJimmi.[13]
For most of the Sepik's length, the river winds in serpentine fashion, like theAmazon, to theBismarck Sea off northern Papua New Guinea. Unlike many other large rivers, the Sepik has nodelta whatsoever, but flows straight into the sea, about 100 km (62 mi) east of the town ofWewak. It is navigable for most of its length.
The river has a total length of over 1,100 km (680 mi) and has a drainage basin of over 80,000 km2 (31,000 sq mi).[1] Its meandering bed is 250–500 m (820–1,640 ft) wide and averages 8–14 m (26–46 ft) deep.[2] There is a 5-10 kilometre-wide belt of active meanders along most of its course, that has created a floodplain up to 70 kilometres wide, with extensive backwater swamps.[9] There are around 1,500oxbow and other lakes in the floodplain, the largest of which are theChambri Lakes. Its annual sediment load is estimated at 115 million tonnes.[9][14]
The Sepik basin is largely an undisturbed environment, with no major urban settlements, ormining andforestry activities, in the river catchment.April Salome Forest Management Area is located in Sepik River basin.
Its catchment is classified as typeAf (tropical rainforest) according toKöppen climate classification, with a rainfall of 3,390 mm.[15]
*1969/1970 water year 8,964 m3/s.
Sepik River discharge (m3/s) atAmbunti station (period from 1963—1994):
| Water year | Min | Mean | Max | Water year | Min | Mean | Max |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1963/64 | 3,398 | 5,316 | 7,038 | 1979/80 | 2,009 | 4,080 | 5,509 |
| 1964/65 | 1980/81 | 1,632 | 3,850 | 5,602 | |||
| 1965/66 | 1981/82 | 1,142 | 3,310 | 5,465 | |||
| 1966/67 | 2,429 | 3,390 | 4,331 | 1982/83 | 1,509 | 4,060 | 5,999 |
| 1967/68 | 1,242 | 3,080 | 4,883 | 1983/84 | 1,828 | 3,360 | 4,703 |
| 1968/69 | 1,821 | 3,740 | 5,606 | 1984/85 | 2,111 | 3,680 | 5,232 |
| 1969/70 | 2,696 | 4,950 | 8,964 | 1985/86 | 999 | 3,190 | 4,808 |
| 1970/71 | 1,822 | 3,040 | 4,240 | 1986/87 | 932 | 3,080 | 5,502 |
| 1971/72 | 1,074 | 3,320 | 4,757 | 1987/88 | 2,736 | 3,880 | 5,008 |
| 1972/73 | 2,326 | 4,540 | 7,081 | 1988/89 | 1,448 | 3,790 | 6,203 |
| 1973/74 | 1,082 | 3,010 | 4,893 | 1989/90 | 1,907 | 3,870 | 5,809 |
| 1974/75 | 1,452 | 3,730 | 5,989 | 1990/91 | 1,482 | 3,210 | 4,926 |
| 1975/76 | 1,183 | 3,220 | 5,164 | 1991/92 | 1,747 | 3,350 | 4,938 |
| 1976/77 | 2,205 | 4,030 | 5,622 | 1992/93 | 1,320 | 3,180 | 5,017 |
| 1977/78 | 1,538 | 3,830 | 5,636 | 1993/94 | 2,825 | 4,020 | 5,061 |
| 1978/79 | 1,153 | 3,450 | 5,606 | ||||
The main tributaries from the mouth:
| Left tributary | Right tributary | Length (km) | Basin size (km2) | Average discharge (m3/s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sepik | 1,126 | 80,386.2 | 5,000 | |
| Bien | 1,344.8 | 67.7 | ||
| Keram | 5,598.7 | 306.9 | ||
| Nagam | 1,757.2 | 41.9 | ||
| Yuat | 373.4 | 11,952.5 | 625.4 | |
| Pasik | 655.1 | 15.1 | ||
| Karawari | 7,565.9 | 376.3 | ||
| Hambili | 1,036.7 | 31.1 | ||
| Atilem | 954.6 | 23.1 | ||
| Kwatit (Parchee) | 611.3 | 15 | ||
| Yimi | 3,204.3 | 87.8 | ||
| Black River—Huastein | 917 | 64.4 | ||
| Sanchi | 1,468.3 | 77.4 | ||
| Namblo | 663.4 | 36.5 | ||
| Wagasu | 1,068.8 | 59.4 | ||
| April | 2,552.2 | 226.8 | ||
| Wagamush | 964.7 | 81.6 | ||
| Wario | 1,893.6 | 279.9 | ||
| Nopan | 992.5 | 60.1 | ||
| Frieda | 70 | 1,466 | 271.9 | |
| Seniap | 538.9 | 57.7 | ||
| May | 3,301.4 | 405.5 | ||
| Wanibe Creek | 1,618.4 | 98 | ||
| Yula | 479.5 | 31.4 | ||
| Yellow | 1,769.8 | 111.2 | ||
| North | 1,995.8 | 123.7 | ||
| Horden | 2,103.1 | 124.1 | ||
| Fanngi (Green River) | 750.8 | 41.4 | ||
| Idam | 440.4 | 35.2 | ||
| Hauser | 1,149.3 | 74.1 | ||
| August (Yapsiei) | 1,838 | 208.5 | ||
| October | 604.3 | 44.5 | ||
| West | 529.4 | 46.8 | ||
| Raadsel | 269 | 39.7 | ||
| Hollander | 269.4 | 40.4 | ||
| Oklip | 1,042 | 193.4 | ||
| Brucken | 465.8 | 76.4 | ||
| Iugum (Casuarina) | 201.4 | 32 | ||
| Hak (East) | 464.3 | 54.7 | ||
| Elip (Donner) | 227.6 | 26.6 | ||
| Iram | 388.7 | 64.9 | ||
| Nong | 176.6 | 23.8 | ||
From the headwaters to the mouth, the river basin flows through the territories of spoken of dozens ofSepik languages,[24] each corresponding to one or more culture regions of related villages that exhibit similar social characteristics. The largest language and culture group along the river is theIatmul people.
The Sepik-Ramu basin is home to theTorricelli,Sepik,Lower Sepik-Ramu,Kwomtari,Leonhard Schultze,Upper Yuat,Yuat,Left May, andAmto-Musanlanguage families, while locallanguage isolates areBusa,Taiap, andYadë.[25][26]Torricelli,Sepik, andLower Sepik-Ramu are by far the three most internally diverse language families of the region.
Local villagers have lived along the river for many millennia and the river has formed the basis for food, transport and culture. There are at least 100 distinct villages and hamlets along the river, and most likely more.[27]
European contact with the river started in 1885, shortly afterGermany established colonial control overGerman New Guinea or Kaiser Wilhelmsland. The river was named byOtto Finsch,Kaiserin Augusta, after the German EmpressAugusta. The colony was initially managed by theGerman New Guinea Company (Neuguinea-Kompagnie). Finsch, in the shipSamoa, entered only the estuary. He returned a year later, and theSamoa launched a smaller vessel that navigated about 50 kilometres (31 mi) upstream from its mouth.[28] For the most part, German interest in the river was mainly to explore its economic potential, to collect artifacts, and to recruit native laborers to work on coastal and island copra plantations.[29]
In 1886 and 1887, further expeditions bysteam boat were conducted by the Germans and over 600 kilometres (370 mi) were explored.[28] In 1887, the Samoa returned with another scientific expedition as well as a dozen Malays, eight men from the island ofNew Britain, and, two members of theRhenish Missionary Society.[30] In the 1890s, missionaries from theSociety of the Divine Word or SVD begin to proselytize along the river.[31]
Europeans now increased their travels and presence along the river.[32] In the early twentieth century, several major expeditions to the river include the Südsee-Expedition sponsored by the Hamburg Academic of Science, the German-Dutch Border Expedition and the Kaiserin-Augusta-Fluss-Expedition[33] These expeditions, mainly German, collected flora and fauna, studied local tribes, and produced the first maps. The station town ofAngoram was established in 1913 as a base on the lower Sepik for explorations, but with the beginning ofWorld War I, the explorations ceased.[28]
After the first World War the Australian government took trusteeship of the German colony, creating theTerritory of New Guinea, and the Sepik region came under their jurisdiction. During this period the Australians established a station on the middle Sepik atAmbunti to conduct further explorations.[28]
In 1923 journalistBeatrice Grimshaw attached herself to an expedition, and claimed to be the first white woman to ascent the Sepik, commenting on the widespread use of "pidgen-English" as alingua franca.[34] In 1935Sir Walter McNicoll, the new administrator of the Territory of New Guinea, travelled up length of the Sepik to "have a look at the river people and the kind of country along the banks".[35]
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Despite the thorough exploration of the Sepik and the river basin by Europeans starting with the 1880s, and the extraordinarily keen knowledge of the region by local people and communities, many travelers today still see their tourism in the area as heroic efforts.
Part of this fantasy is that the river tribes are often said to have "little contact with the modern world," as theLos Angeles Times put it as late as 2017.[36] But that is just not true, and certainly not for a sizable tourist vessel operated byCoral Expeditions. Traveling the river is said to be "one of the last great adventures on earth".[37]
For example, in 2010 Clark Carter and Andrew Johnson traveled the length of the Sepik River from source to sea. They hiked to the source fromTelefomin and kayaked down the upper reaches in an inflatable kayak. After nearly drowning in a section of rapids near Telefomin, they decided to walk through the jungle, following the river until it was calm enough to take adugout canoe the remaining 900 kilometres to theBismarck Sea. The expedition took six weeks. "The Sepik really appealed to me," said Carter, "because it conjures up images of remote tribes and wild animals. Probably the most alluring thing for me though, is just how un-travelled the area is."[38]
Also in 2010, the painterIngo Kühl, accompanied by the local artist Tomulopa Deko, traveled fromGoroka viaMadang,Wewak andMaprik toPagwi and from there on the Sepik upriver toAmbunti and to the villages of Maliwai, Yambon andYessan. He described his experiences in an illustrated book.[39] In 2012 he repeated this expedition together with his wife and Tom Deko. They reached the settlements of Oum Number 1 and Oum Number 2 and the April River, a tributary of the Sepik.
TheJapanese held the area throughout most of theSecond World War. By the end of the war though, the Japanese had been completely surrounded afterHollandia andAitape inNetherlands New Guinea were captured by Allied forces in April 1944 duringOperations Reckless andPersecution.[40][41] TheAitape-Wewak campaign, the battle to defeat the remaining forces by theAustralian Army, was hard-fought and drawn out due to the terrain lasting until the end of the war in August 1945.[42]
The Australians eventually pushed the Japanese back to the village ofTimbunke on the middle Sepik in July 1945. After an AustralianRAAF plane landed 10 kilometres (6 mi) from Timbunke the Japanese suspected that the villagers had collaborated with the Australians and proceeded to massacre 100 of the villagers.[43]
The Sepik is one of the most profuse and diverse art producing regions of the world. The numerous different tribes living along the river produce magnificent wood carvings, clay pottery and other art and craft. Different areas along the Sepik produce distinct art styles so an experience curator will be visually able to distinguish individual styles. The Sepik area is well known for its sculpture[44] masks[45] shields[46] and other artifacts. Many tribes usegaramut drums in rituals; the drums are formed from long, hollowed-out tree trunks carved into the shape of various totem animals.[47][48][49]
