Inmolecular biology aselenoprotein is anyprotein that includes aselenocysteine (Sec, U, Se-Cys)amino acid residue. Among functionally characterized selenoproteins are fiveglutathione peroxidases (GPX) and threethioredoxin reductases, (TrxR/TXNRD) which both contain only one Sec.[1]Selenoprotein P is the most common selenoprotein found in the plasma. It is unusual because in humans it contains 10 Sec residues, which are split into two domains, a longer N-terminal domain that contains 1 Sec, and a shorter C-terminal domain that contains 9 Sec. The longer N-terminal domain is likely an enzymatic domain, and the shorter C-terminal domain is likely a means of safely transporting the very reactiveselenium atom throughout the body.[2][3]
Selenoproteins exist in all major domains of life,eukaryotes,bacteria andarchaea. Amongeukaryotes, selenoproteins appear to be common inanimals, but rare or absent in other phyla—one has been identified in the greenalgaChlamydomonas, but almost none in otherplants or infungi. TheAmerican cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait.) is the only land plant known[when?] to possess sequence-level machinery for producingselenocysteine in itsmitochondrial genome, although its level of functionality is not yet determined.[4] Among bacteria and archaea, selenoproteins are only present in some lineages, while they are completely absent in many other phylogenetic groups. These observations have now been confirmed bywhole genome analysis, which shows the presence or absence of selenoprotein genes and accessory genes for the synthesis of selenoproteins in the respective organism.[5]
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Besides theselenocysteine-containing selenoproteins, there are also some selenoproteins known from bacterial species,[6] which haveselenium bound noncovalently. Most of these proteins are thought to contain a selenide-ligand to amolybdopterin cofactor at their active sites (e.g.nicotinate dehydrogenase ofEubacterium barkeri, orxanthine dehydrogenases). Selenium is also specifically incorporated into modified bases of sometRNAs (as 2-seleno-5-methylaminomethyl-uridine).
In addition, selenium occurs in proteins as unspecifically incorporatedselenomethionine, which replaces methionine residues. Proteins containing such unspecifically incorporated selenomethionine residues are not regarded as selenoproteins. However, replacement of allmethionines by selenomethionines is a widely used, recent technique in solving the phase problem during X-ray crystallographic structure determination of many proteins (MAD-phasing). While the exchange of methionines by selenomethionines appears to be tolerated (at least in bacterial cells), unspecific incorporation of selenocysteine in lieu ofcysteine seems to be highly toxic. This may be one reason for the existence of a rather complicated pathway of selenocysteine biosynthesis and specific incorporation into selenoproteins, which avoids the occurrence of the free amino acid as intermediate. Thus, even if a selenocysteine-containing selenoprotein is taken up in the diet and used as selenium source, the amino acid must be degraded prior to synthesising a new selenocysteine for incorporation into a selenoprotein.
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Selenium is a vital nutrient in animals,[7] including humans. About 25 different selenocysteine-containing selenoproteins have so far been observed in humancells and tissues.[8] Since lack of selenium deprives the cell of its ability to synthesize selenoproteins, many health effects of low selenium intake are believed to be caused by the lack of one or more specific selenoproteins. Three selenoproteins,TXNRD1 (TR1),TXNRD2 (TR3) andglutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4), have been shown to be essential in mouse knockout experiments. On the other hand, too much dietary selenium causes toxic effects and can lead toselenium poisoning. The threshold between essential and toxic concentrations of this element is rather narrow with a factor in the range of 10-100.
Mutations in Selenoprotein N (SELENON, formerly SEPN1) in humans cause a subtype of congenital muscular dystrophy known asSELENON-related myopathy.[9][10]
Human selenoproteins include:
Bacterial selenoproteins include: