Until 1256, the Second Bulgarian Empire was the dominant power in theBalkans, defeating theByzantine Empire in several major battles. In 1205, EmperorKaloyan defeated the newly establishedLatin Empire in theBattle of Adrianople. His nephewIvan Asen II defeated theDespotate of Epiros and made Bulgaria a regional power again. During his reign, Bulgaria spread from theAdriatic to theBlack Sea and the economy flourished. In the late 13th century, however, the Empire declined under constant invasions byMongols,Byzantines,Hungarians, andSerbs, as well as internal unrest and revolts. The 14th century saw a temporary recovery and stability, but also the peak of Balkanfeudalism as central authorities gradually lost power in many regions. Bulgaria was divided into three parts on the eve of the Ottoman invasion.
Despite strong Byzantine influence, Bulgarian artists and architects created their own distinctive style. In the 14th century Bulgarian culture, literature, art, andarchitecture flourished.[12] The capital cityTarnovo, which was considered a "New Constantinople", became the country's main cultural hub and the centre of the Eastern Orthodox world for contemporaryBulgarians.[13] After the Ottoman conquest, many Bulgarian clerics and scholars emigrated toSerbia,Wallachia,Moldavia, andRussian principalities, where they introduced Bulgarian culture, books, andhesychastic ideas.[14]
The name most frequently used for the empire by contemporaries wasBulgaria, as the state called itself.[5] DuringKaloyan's reign, the state was sometimes known as being of both Bulgarians andVlachs.Pope Innocent III and other foreigners such as the Latin EmperorHenry mentioned the state asBulgaria and theBulgarian Empire in official letters.[15][16]
In modern historiography, the state is called theSecond Bulgarian Empire,Second Bulgarian Tsardom, or theSecond Bulgarian Kingdom to distinguish it from theFirst Bulgarian Empire.[17] An alternative name used in connection with the pre-mid 13th century period is theEmpire of Vlachs and Bulgarians;[18] variant names include theVlach–Bulgarian Empire, theBulgarian–Wallachian Empire,[19] or theRomanian–Bulgarian Empire; the latter name was used exclusively in Romanian historiography.[20]
However, Arabic chronicles from the 13th century had used only the name of Wallachia instead of Bulgaria and gave the Arabic coordinates of Wallachia and specified that Walachia was named "al-Awalak" and the dwellers "ulaqut" or "ulagh".[21]
In 1018, when the Byzantine emperorBasil II (r. 976–1025)conquered the First Bulgarian Empire, he ruled it cautiously. The existing tax system,[a] laws, and the power of low-ranking nobility remained unchanged until his death in 1025. TheautocephalousBulgarian Patriarchate was subordinated to theEcumenical Patriarch inConstantinople and downgraded to anarchbishopric centred in Ohrid, while retaining its autonomy and dioceses. Basil appointed the BulgarianJohn I Debranin as its first archbishop, but his successors were Byzantines. The Bulgarian aristocracy and tsar's relatives were given various Byzantine titles and transferred to the Asian parts of the Empire.[22][23] Despite hardships, the Bulgarian language, literature, and culture survived; surviving period texts refer to and idealize the Bulgarian Empire.[24] Most of the newly conquered territories were included in the themesBulgaria,Sirmium, andParistrion.
As the Byzantine Empire declined under Basil's successors, invasions ofPechenegs and rising taxes contributed to increasing discontent, which resulted in several major uprisings in 1040–41, the 1070s, and the 1080s. The initial centre of the resistance was the theme of Bulgaria, in what is nowMacedonia, where the massiveUprising of Peter Delyan (1040–41) and theUprising of Georgi Voiteh (1072) took place. Both were quelled with great difficulty by Byzantine authorities.[25] These were followed by rebellions in Paristrion andThrace.[26] During theKomnenian Restoration and the temporary stabilisation of the Byzantine Empire in the first half of the 12th century, the Bulgarians were pacified and no major rebellions took place until later in the century.
The disastrous rule of the last Komnenian emperorAndronikos I (r. 1183–85) worsened the situation of the Bulgarian peasantry and nobility. The first act of his successorIsaac II Angelos was to impose an extra tax to finance his wedding.[27] In 1185, two aristocrat brothers fromTarnovo,Theodore andAsen, asked the emperor to provide them a relatively poorpronoia in the Balkan Mountains, in exchange for military service. The emperor refused, resulting in a heated argument which saw Asen struck across the face.[28] Upon their return to Tarnovo, the brothers commissioned the construction of a church dedicated toSaint Demetrius of Salonica. They showed the populace a celebrated icon of the saint, who they claimed had leftThessalonica to support the Bulgarian cause and called for a rebellion. That act had the desired effect on the religious population, who enthusiastically engaged in a rebellion against the Byzantines. Theodore, the elder brother, was crowned Emperor of Bulgaria under the name Peter IV, after the saintedPeter I (r.927–969).[b][29] Almost all of Bulgaria to the north of theBalkan Mountains—the region known asMoesia—immediately joined the rebels, who also secured the assistance of theCumans, a Turkic tribe inhabiting lands north of theDanube river. The Cumans soon became an important part of the Bulgarian army, playing a major role in the successes that followed.[30][31] As soon as the rebellion broke out, Peter IV attempted to seize the old capital ofPreslav but failed; he declared Tarnovo the capital of Bulgaria.[32]
TheChurch of St Demetrius in Tarnovo, built by Asen and Peter in the beginning of the uprising
From Moesia, the Bulgarians launched attacks in northern Thrace while the Byzantine army was fighting with theNormans, who had attacked Byzantine possessions in the Western Balkans andsacked Thessalonica, the Empire's second largest city. The Byzantines reacted in mid-1186, when Isaac II organized a campaign to crush the rebellion before it spread further. The Bulgarians had secured the passes but the Byzantine army found its way across the mountains due to asolar eclipse.[5][33] Once the Byzantines reached the plains, the rebels did not risk a confrontation with the larger, better-organized force. Peter IV pretended he was willing to submit, while Asen travelled to the north of the Danube to raise an army. Contented, the Byzantine emperor burned the Bulgarians' crops and returned to Constantinople. Soon after, Asen crossed back over the Danube with Cuman reinforcements, declaring he would continue the struggle until all Bulgarian lands were liberated.[33] A new Byzantine army was assembled under the command of the emperor's uncleJohn Doukas Angelos, but as Isaac II feared he would be overthrown, Doukas was replaced byJohn Kantakouzenos, a blind man ineligible for the throne. The Bulgarians attacked Kantakouzenos' camp during the night, killing a large number of soldiers.[34][35] In mid-1186, another army under the generalAlexios Branas was sent in. However, instead of fighting the rebels, Branas turned to Constantinople to claim the throne for himself; he was murdered shortly afterwards.[36] Taking advantage of the chaos, the Bulgarians raided northern Thrace, looting the countryside before Byzantine forces could counterattack. On one occasion, the two armies confronted each other near the fortress ofLardea in an indecisive battle; the Bulgarians kept their plunder and retreated untroubled to the north of the Balkan mountains.[37]
In the late 1186, Isaac II launched his second campaign against Bulgaria. His army was forced to spend the winter inSofia, giving the Bulgarians time to prepare for the invasion. Early the following year, the Byzantinesbesieged Lovech but could not seize it; they signed an armistice thatde facto recognized Bulgarian independence.[37][38][39] In 1189, when the leader of theThird Crusade, emperorFrederick I Barbarossa was at the brink of war with the Byzantines, Asen and Peter IV offered him an army of 40,000 in return for official recognition, but relations between the Crusaders and the Byzantines eventually improved. In 1190, Isaac II led another anti-Bulgarian campaign that ended in a catastrophic defeatat the Tryavna Pass. The emperor barely escaped with his life; the Imperial treasury, including the crown and the cross, were captured by the victorious Bulgarians.[40] After their success, Asen was crowned emperor and became known as Ivan Asen I.[41] Peter IV voluntarily stepped down to make way for his more energetic brother; Peter IV retained his title but Ivan Asen assumed authority.[42]
In the next four years, the focus of the war shifted to the south of the Balkan mountains. Ivan Asen's strategy of swiftly striking in different locations paid off, and he soon took control of the important cities Sofia andNiš to the south-west, clearing the way to Macedonia.[43] In 1194, the Byzantines gathered a huge force composed of the eastern and western armies, but were defeated at theBattle of Arcadiopolis. Unable to resist, Isaac II tried to ally with the Hungarian kingBéla III and make a joint attack against Bulgaria, but was deposed and blinded by his brotherAlexios III Angelos.[44] The Byzantines tried to negotiate peace but Ivan Asen demanded the return of all Bulgarian lands and the war continued. In 1196, the Byzantine army was again defeatedat Serres, far to the south. Upon his return to Tarnovo, Ivan Asen was murdered by his cousinIvanko allegedly in a plot inspired by Constantinople.[45] Peter IV besieged Tarnovo and Ivanko fled to the Byzantine Empire, where he was made governor ofPhilippopolis. Peter IV was murdered less than a year after his brother's death.[46]
A map of the Bulgarian Empire, showing territorial extent and the campaigns between 1185 and 1197TheChurch of the Holy Forty Martyrs where Kaloyan was buried
The throne was succeeded byKaloyan, Asen's and Peter IV's youngest brother. An ambitious and ruthless ruler, he wanted to gain international recognition and to complete the liberation of Bulgaria. Kaloyan also wanted revenge against the Byzantines for blinding 14,000 of emperorSamuel's soldiers. Kaloyan called himselfRomanoktonos (Roman-slayer) afterBasil II, who was calledBulgaroktonos (Bulgar-slayer).[47] He quickly allied himself with his brother's murderer, Ivanko. The Byzantines killed Ivanko, but the Bulgarians took the city ofConstantia. In 1201, Kaloyan capturedVarna, the last Byzantine stronghold in Moesia, which was defended by a large garrison. Despite capturing the city atEaster, Kaloyan ordered every Byzantine to be thrown in the moat.[48] He then negotiated peace with Byzantines, securing Bulgarian gains in early 1202.[49] While the Bulgarians were occupied in the south, the Hungarian kingAndrew II and his Serbian vassalVukan had annexedBelgrade,Braničevo, and Niš, but after negotiating peace, Kaloyan turned his attention to the north-west. In 1203, the Bulgarians pushed the Serbs out of Niš, defeated the Hungarian army in several battles along the valley of theMorava river, and recaptured their former territory.[49]
Kaloyan knew the Byzantines would never recognize his imperial title; he began negotiations with Pope Innocent III. He based the claims on his predecessors in the First Bulgarian Empire;Simeon I, Peter I, and Samuel.[50] The Pope was willing to recognize Kaloyan as king on the condition the Bulgarian Church would submit to Rome. After lengthy negotiations in which both acted diplomatically but without changing their positions, Kaloyan was crowned king in late 1204. Archbishop Basil was proclaimedPrimate. Kaloyan had no intention of submitting to that decision; he sent the Pope a letter expressing his gratitude for the Imperial title he had received and the elevation of the Bulgarian Church to a Patriarchate. Eventually the Papacy tacitly accepted the Bulgarian position regarding the Imperial title.[51][52][53] The union between Bulgaria and Rome remained strictly official; the Bulgarians did not change their Orthodox rites and traditions.[53]
A map showing the greatest territorial extension of the Second Bulgarian Empire during the reign of Ivan Asen II (1218–1241)
Several months before Kaloyan's coronation, the leaders of theFourth Crusade turned on the Byzantine Empire andcaptured Constantinople, creating theLatin Empire. The Bulgarians tried to establish friendly relations with the Latins but were rebuffed and the Latins claimed their lands despite Papal recognition. Facing a common enemy, Kaloyan and the Byzantine aristocracy in Thrace made an alliance and the latter promised they would accept Kaloyan as their emperor.[54][55] The decisive battle between the Bulgarian army and the Crusaders took place on 14 April 1205,at Adrianople, at which the Latins were defeated and their emperorBaldwin I was captured. The battle was a blow to the newly founded Latin Empire, which descended into chaos.[56][57] After their victory, the Bulgarians retook most of Thrace, including the important city of Philippopolis. The unexpected Bulgarian successes caused the Byzantine nobility to plot against Kaloyan and ally themselves with the Latins.[58] The plot in Tarnovo was quickly discovered; Kaloyan made brutal reprisals against the Byzantines in Thrace. The campaign against the Latins also continued; in 1206, the Bulgarians were victorious at thebattle of Rusion and conquered a number of towns inEastern Thrace. The following year,Boniface I, the King of Salonica, was killed in battle, but Kaloyan was murdered before he could begin the assault on the capital.[59]
Kaloyan was succeeded by his cousinBoril, who tried to pursue his predecessor's policies but did not have his capability. His army was defeated by the Latinsat Philippopolis, reversing most of Kaloyan's gains. Boril failed to maintain the integrity of the empire; his brotherStrez took most of Macedonia for himself,Alexius Slav seceded his territory in theRhodopes; in return for help suppressing a major rebellion in 1211, Boril was forced to cede Belgrade and Braničevo to Hungary. A campaign against Serbia in 1214 also ended in defeat.[60][61]
I waged war in Romania[c], defeated the Greek army, and captured the Lord Emperor Theodore Comnenus himself and all hisboyars. And I conquered all the land from Adrianople to Durazzo, Greek, Serbia and Albanian alike. The Franks[c] hold only the cities in the vicinity of Constantinople itself. But even they [these cities] are under the authority of my empire since they have no other emperor but me, and only thanks to me do they survive, for thus God has decreed.
—Tarnovo inscription of Ivan Asen II in the Church of the Holy Forty Martyrs on the aftermath of the battle of Klokotnitsa.[62]
As a result of the growing discontent with his policy, Boril was overthrown in 1218 byIvan Asen II, son of Ivan Asen I, who had lived in exile after Kaloyan's death.[63] After his coronation, Ivan Asen II arranged a wedding withAnna Maria, daughter of the Hungarian king Andrew II, and received the captured cities Belgrade and Braničevo as a dowry. He then signed an alliance withTheodore Komnenos, ruler of the most powerful Byzantine successor state, theDespotate of Epirus. With his northern border secured by the treaty, Theodore Komnenos conquered Salonica, greatly reducing the size of the Latin Empire. In 1225, Theodore proclaimed himself emperor.[64] By 1228, the situation for the Latins became desperate; they entered into negotiations with Bulgaria, promising a marriage between the under-age emperorBaldwin II and Ivan Asen II's daughter Helena. This marriage would have made the Bulgarian emperor a regent in Constantinople, but in the meantime the Latins offered the regency to the French noblemanJohn of Brienne.[63] Concerned with the actions of the Bulgarians, while marching on Constantinople in 1230, Theodore Komnenos invaded Bulgaria with a huge army. Surprised, Ivan Asen II gathered a small force and moved to the south to engage them. Instead of a banner, he used the peace treaty with Theodore's oath and seal stuck on his spear and won a major victory in theBattle of Klokotnitsa. Theodore Komnenos was captured along with his whole court and most of the surviving troops.[65][66][67] Ivan Asen II released all ordinary soldiers and marched on the Epirote–controlled territories, where all cities and towns from Adrianople toDurazzo on theAdriatic Sea surrendered and recognized his rule. Theodore's brotherMichael II Komnenos Doukas was allowed to rule in Salonica over the southern areas of the despotate as a Bulgarian vassal.[68][69] It is possible Serbia accepted Bulgariansuzerainty at that time to counter the threat from Catholic Hungary.[70]
In 1231, when John of Brienne arrived in Constantinople, Ivan Asen II allied with theNicaean Empire against the Latins. After the Nicaeans recognized the Bulgarian Patriarchate in 1235, Ivan Asen II broke his union with the Papacy. The joint campaign against the Latins was successful, but theyfailed to capture Constantinople. With John of Brienne's death two years later, Ivan Asen II—who could have again become a regent of Baldwin II—decided to end his cooperation with Nicaea.[71] His decision was further based on the assumption that after an allied success, Constantinople would again have become the centre of a restored Byzantine Empire, with the Nicaean dynasty as a ruling house.[72] The Bulgarian–Latin cooperation was short-lived; Ivan Asen II remained at peace with his southern neighbours until the end of his reign. Shortly before his death in 1241, Ivan Asen II defeated part of the Mongol army returning to the east after adevastating attack on Poland and Hungary.[73]
Ivan Asen II was succeeded by his infant sonKaliman I. Despite the initial success against the Mongols, theregency of the new emperor decided to avoid further raids and chose to pay them tribute instead.[74] The lack of a strong monarch and increasing rivalries among the nobility caused Bulgaria to rapidly decline. Itsmain rival Nicaea avoided Mongol raids and gained power in the Balkans.[75] After the death of 12-year-old Kaliman I in 1246, the throne was succeeded by several short-reigned rulers. The weakness of the new government was exposed when the Nicaean army conquered large areas in southern Thrace, the Rhodopes, and Macedonia—includingAdrianople,Tsepina,Stanimaka,Melnik,Serres,Skopje, andOhrid—meeting little resistance. The Hungarians also exploited Bulgarian weakness, occupying Belgrade and Braničevo.[76][77] The Bulgarians reacted as late as 1253, invading Serbia and regaining the Rhodopes the following year. However,Michael II Asen's indecisiveness allowed the Nicaeans to regain all of their lost territory, with the exception of Tsepina. In 1255, the Bulgarians quickly regained Macedonia, whose Bulgarian population preferred the rule of Tarnovo to that of the Nicaeans.[78] All gains were lost in 1256, after the Bulgarian representativeRostislav Mikhailovich betrayed his cause and reaffirmed Nicaean control over the disputed areas.[78][79] This major setback cost the emperor's life and led to a period of instability and civil war between several claimants to the throne until 1257, when the boyar of SkopjeConstantine Tikh emerged as a victor.[80]
The new emperor had to deal with multiple foreign threats. In 1257, the Latins attacked and seizedMessembria but could not hold the town. More serious was the situation to the north-west, where the Hungarians supported Rostislav, the self-proclaimed Emperor of Bulgaria inVidin. In 1260, Constantine Tikh recovered Vidin and occupied the Severin Banat, but the next year a Hungarian counterattack forced the Bulgarians to retreat to Tarnovo, restoring Vidin to Rostislav.[81] The city was soon controlled by the Bulgarian nobleJacob Svetoslav, but by 1266 he also styled himself emperor.[82] The restoration of the Byzantine Empire under the ambitiousMichael VIII Palaiologos further worsened Bulgaria's situation. A major Byzantine invasion in 1263 led to the loss of the coastal towns Messembria andAnchialus, and several cities in Thrace—including Philippopolis.[83] Unable to effectively resist, Constantine Tikh organized a joint Bulgarian–Mongol campaign, but after ravaging Thrace the Mongols returned north of the Danube.[84] The emperor became crippled after a hunting accident in the early 1260s, and fell under the influence of his wifeMaria Palaiologina, whose constant intrigues fueled divisions among the nobility.[85]
Bulgarian Empire (in dark green) and Southeastern Europe in 1265
Constant Mongol raids, economic difficulties, and the emperor's illness led to amassive popular uprising in the north-east in 1277. The rebel army, led by the swineherdIvaylo, defeated the Mongols twice, greatly boosting Ivaylo's popularity. Ivaylo then turned on and defeated the regular army under the command of Constantine Tikh. He personally killed the emperor, claiming the latter did nothing to defend his honour.[86][87] Fearing a revolt in Byzantium, and willing to exploit the situation, the emperor Michael VIII sent an army led byIvan Asen III, a Bulgarian pretender to the throne, but the rebels reached Tarnovo first. Constantine Tikh's widow Maria married Ivaylo and he was proclaimed emperor. After the Byzantines failed, Michael VIII turned to the Mongols, who invadedDobrudzha and defeated Ivaylo's army, forcing him to retreat toDrastar, where he withstood a three-month siege.[88][89][90] After his defeat, Ivaylo was betrayed by the Bulgarian nobility, who opened the gates of Tarnovo to Ivan Asen III. In early 1279, Ivaylo broke off the siege at Drastar and besieged the capital. The Byzantines sent a 10,000-strong army to relieve Ivan Asen III, but suffered defeat by Ivaylo at thebattle of Devina. Another army of 5,000 had a similar fate, forcing Ivan Asen III to flee.[91] Ivaylo's situation did not improve, however—after two years of constant warfare his support was diminished, the Mongols were not decisively defeated, and the nobility remained hostile. By the end of 1280, Ivaylo sought refuge with his former enemies the Mongols, who under Byzantine influence killed him.[92] The nobility chose the powerful noble and ruler ofCherven,George I Terter, as emperor. He reigned for twelve years, bringing even stronger Mongol influence and the loss of most of the remaining lands in Thrace to the Byzantines. This period of instability and uncertainty continued until 1300, when for a few months the MongolChaka ruled in Tarnovo.[93]
In 1300,Theodore Svetoslav, George I's eldest son, took advantage of a civil war in the Golden Horde, overthrew Chaka, and presented his head to the Mongol khanToqta. This brought an end to Mongol interference in Bulgarian domestic affairs and securedSouthern Bessarabia as far asBolgrad to Bulgaria.[94] The new emperor began to rebuild the country's economy, subdued many of the semi-independent nobles, and executed as traitors those he held responsible for assisting the Mongols, including PatriarchJoachim III.[95][96][97] The Byzantines, interested in Bulgaria's continuous instability, supported pretenders Michael and Radoslav with their armies, but were defeated by Theodore Svetoslav's uncleAldimir, the despot ofKran. Between 1303 and 1304, the Bulgarians launched several campaigns and retook many towns in north-eastern Thrace. The Byzantines tried to counter the Bulgarian advance but suffered a major defeat in thebattle of Skafida. Unable to change the status quo, they were forced to make peace with Bulgaria in 1307, acknowledging Bulgarian gains.[98][99] Theodore Svetoslav spent the rest of his reign in peace with his neighbors. He maintained cordial relations with Serbia and in 1318, its kingStephen Milutin, paid a visit to Tarnovo. The years of peace brought economic prosperity and boosted commerce; Bulgaria became a major exporter of agricultural commodities, especially wheat.[100][101]
During the early 1320s, tensions between Bulgaria and the Byzantines rose as the latter descended into a civil war and the new emperorGeorge II Terter seized Philippopolis. In the confusion following George II's unexpected death in 1322 without leaving a successor, the Byzantines recaptured the city and other Bulgarian-seized towns in northern Thrace.[102] The energetic despot of Vidin,Michael Shishman, was elected emperor the next year; he immediately turned on the Byzantine emperorAndronikos III Palaiologos, regaining the lost lands.[103] In late 1324, the two monarchs signed a peace treaty, strengthened by a marriage between the Bulgarian ruler andTheodora Palaiologina. Michael Shishman divorced his Serbian wifeAnna Neda, causing a deterioration of relations with Serbia. This change of political course is explained by the rapid growth of Serbian power and its penetration into Macedonia.[104][105]
The Bulgarians and the Byzantines agreed to a joint campaign against Serbia, but it took five years until the differences and tensions between Bulgaria and Byzantium were overcome.[106] Michael Shishman gathered 15,000 troops and invaded Serbia. He engaged the Serbian kingStephen Dečanski, who commanded an approximately equal force, near the border town of Velbazhd. The two rulers, both expecting reinforcements, agreed to a one-day truce but when aCatalan detachment under the king's sonStephen Dušan arrived, the Serbs broke their word. The Bulgarians were defeated in the ensuingBattle of Velbazhd and their emperor perished.[107] Despite their victory, the Serbs did not risk an invasion of Bulgaria and the two sides agreed to peace. As a result,Ivan Stephen, the eldest son of the dead emperor by his Serbian wife, succeeded him in Tarnovo and was deposed after a brief rule.[108] Bulgaria did not lose territory[d] but could not stop the Serbian expansion in Macedonia.[109]
After the disaster at Velbazhd, the Byzantines attacked Bulgaria and seized a number of towns and castles in northern Thrace. Their success ended in 1332, when the new Bulgarian emperorIvan Alexander defeated them in thebattle of Rusokastro, recovering the captured territories.[109][110] In 1344, the Bulgarians entered theByzantine civil war of 1341–47 on the side ofJohn V Palaiologos againstJohn VI Kantakouzenos, capturing nine towns along theMaritsa river and in the Rhodope Mountains, including Philippopolis. That acquisition marked the last significant territorial expansion of medieval Bulgaria, but also led to the first attacks on Bulgarian soil by theOttoman Turks, who were allied with Kantakouzenos.[111]
The attempts of Ivan Alexander to fight off the Ottomans in the late 1340s and early 1350s failed after two defeats in which his eldest son and successorMichael Asen IV and his second sonIvan Asen IV may have been killed.[112] The emperor's relations with his other sonIvan Sratsimir, who had been installed as the ruler of Vidin, deteriorated after 1349, when Ivan Alexander divorced his wife to marrySarah-Theodora, a converted Jew. When their childIvan Shishman was designated an heir to the throne, Ivan Sratsimir proclaimed independence.[113]
In 1366, Ivan Alexander refused to grant passage to the Byzantine emperor John V Palaiologos, and the troops of theSavoyard crusade attacked theBulgarian Black Sea coast. They seizedSozopolis, Messembria, Anchialus, andEmona, causing heavy casualties and unsuccessfully laying siege to Varna. The Bulgarians eventually granted passage to John V, but the lost towns were handed over to the Byzantines.[114] To the north-west, the Hungariansattacked and occupied Vidin in 1365. Ivan Alexander reconquered his province four years later, allied with hisde jure vassalsVladislav I of Wallachia andDobrotitsa.[115][116] The death of Ivan Alexander in 1371 left the country irrevocably divided between Ivan Shishman in Tarnovo, Ivan Sratsimir in Vidin, and Dobrotitsa in Karvuna. The 14th century German travelerJohann Schiltberger described these lands as follows:
I was in three regions, and all three were called Bulgaria. The first Bulgaria extends there, where you pass from Hungary through theIron Gate. Its capital is called Vidin. The other Bulgaria lies oppositeWallachia, and its capital is called Tarnovo. The third Bulgaria is there, where the Danube flows intothe sea. Its capital is called Kaliakra.[117]
Second Bulgarian Empire, 1331–1371The defeat of the anti-Ottoman coalition in theBattle of Nicopolis in 1396 was the final blow leading to the fall of the Bulgarian Empire.
On 26 September 1371, the Ottomans defeated a large Christian army led by the Serbian brothersVukašin Mrnjavčević andJovan Uglješa in theBattle of Chernomen. They immediately turned on Bulgaria and conquered northern Thrace, the Rhodopes,Kostenets,Ihtiman, andSamokov, effectively limiting the authority of Ivan Shishman in the lands to the north of theBalkan mountains and theValley of Sofia.[118] Unable to resist, the Bulgarian monarch was forced to become an Ottoman vassal, and in return he recovered some of the lost towns and secured ten years of uneasy peace.[118][119]
The Ottoman raids renewed in the early 1380s, culminating in thefall of Sofia.[120] Simultaneously, Ivan Shishman had been engaged in war against Wallachia since 1384. According to theAnonymous Bulgarian Chronicle, he killed the WallachianvoivodeDan I of Wallachia in September 1386.[121] He also maintained uneasy relations with Ivan Sratsimir, who had broken his last ties with Tarnovo in 1371 and had separated the dioceses of Vidin from the Tarnovo Patriarchate.[122] The two brothers did not cooperate to repel the Ottoman invasion. According to historianKonstantin Jireček, the brothers were engaged in a bitter conflict over Sofia.[123] Ivan Shishman reneged on his vassal obligation to support the Ottomans with troops during their campaigns. Instead, he used every opportunity to participate in Christian coalitions with the Serbs and the Hungarians, provoking massive Ottoman invasions in 1388 and 1393.
Despite strong resistance, the Ottomans seized a number of important towns and fortresses in 1388, and five years later theycaptured Tarnovo after a three-month siege.[124][125] Ivan Shishman died in 1395 when the Ottomans, led byBayezid I, took his last fortressNikopol.[126] In 1396, Ivan Sratsimir joined the Crusade of the Hungarian kingSigismund, but after the Christian army was defeated in theBattle of Nicopolis the Ottomans immediately marched on Vidin and seized it, bringing an end to the medieval Bulgarian state.[127][128]Resistance continued underConstantine andFruzhin until 1422. The former was referred to by king Sigismund as the "distinguished Constantine, glorious Emperor of Bulgaria".[129][130]
The Second Bulgarian Empire was ahereditary monarchy[e] ruled by aTsar—the Bulgarian word for Emperor that originated in the 10th century during the First Bulgarian Empire. The monarchs of Bulgaria styled themselves, "In Christ the Lord Faithful Emperor and Autocrat of all Bulgarians" or variations, sometimes including "...and Romans, Greeks, or Vlachs".[131] The termall Bulgarians was added in the 14th century following the loss of many Bulgarian-populated territories and signified that the monarch in Tarnovo was the emperor of all Bulgarian people, even those who lived beyond the country's political borders.[131]
TheMedieval Bulgarian royal charters, such as the Rila Charter of Ivan Shishman issued in 1378, are an important source on medieval Bulgarian society and administrative posts.
The Emperor held supreme power over secular and religious affairs in anautocracy; his personal abilities played an important role in the country's well-being.[132] When the monarch was an infant, the government was headed by a regency that included the mother-empress, the Patriarch, and senior members of the ruling dynasty.[133] As the processes offeudal fragmentation accelerated in the 14th century, it became customary for the monarch's sons to receive imperial titles during their father's lifetime; sons were styled co-rulers or junior emperors.[134]
Unlike the First Empire, the administration during the Second Bulgarian Empire was heavily influenced by theByzantine system of administration. Most of the titles of the nobility, the court, and the administration were directly adopted from their Byzantine counterparts in Byzantine Greek, or were translated into Bulgarian. There were some differences in the ranking systems between the two countries—there are few surviving sources about the precise obligations, insignia, or ceremonial affairs of the medieval Bulgarian administration.[135] TheBolyar Council included the greater bolyars and the Patriarch; it discussed issues about external and internal policies, such as declarations of war, formations of alliances, or the signing of peace treaties.[136] The highest-ranking administrative officials were thegreat logothete, who had the functions of a first minister, and theprotovestiarios, who was responsible for the treasury and finance.[136] High court titles such asdespot andsebastokrator were awarded to the Emperor's relatives but were not strictly concerned with administrative functions.[137]
Panoramic view ofTarnovo, the capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire
The capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire was Tarnovo, which was also the centre of its own administrative unit under the direct authority of the emperor.[138] Bulgaria was divided into provinces, whose numbers varied with the territorial evolution of the country. In surviving primary sources, the provinces were named with the Byzantine termhora or the Bulgarian termszemya (земя),strana (страна), andoblast (област), usually named after its main city.[139][140] The provincial governors were titled "duke" orkefalia — both from Byzantinedux andkephale—and were directly appointed by the emperor. The provinces were subdivided intokatepanika (sing.katepanikon, from the Byzantinekatepanikion), which were ruled bykatepans who were subordinated to the dukes.[141] During the reign of Ivan Asen II (1218–41), the provinces included Belgrade, Braničevo,Boruy, Adrianople,Dimotika, Skopje,Prilep,Devol, andAlbania.[141]
During the Second Empire, Bulgarian society was divided into threesocial classes: clergy, nobility, and peasantry. The nobility included the aristocracy: thebolyars, whose origin was the older Bulgarianboilas from the First Empire, the judges, and the "whole army".[142] The bolyars were subdivided into greater and lesser bolyars. The former possessed large estates, which at times included tens and even hundreds of villages, and held high administrative and military posts.[143] The peasants formed the bulk of the third class and were subordinated either under the central authorities or under local feudal lords. With time, the number of the latter increased as a result of the process of feudalization of Bulgaria.[144] The main groups of peasants wereparitsi andotrotsi. Both could own land but only theparitsi could inherit property; the latter could not, since it was provided by the feudal lords.[145]
Aerial view of theShumen fortress, an important stronghold in eastern Bulgaria
The emperor of the Second Bulgarian Empire was commander-in-chief of its army; the second-in-command was thevelik (great) voivoda. The detachments of the army were led by avoivoda. Theprotostrator was responsible for the defence of certain regions and the recruitment of soldiers.[146] In the late 12th century, the army numbered 40,000 men-at-arms.[42] The country could mobilize around 100,000 men in the first decade of the 13th century; Kaloyan reportedly offered Baldwin I, the leader of the Fourth Crusade, 100,000 soldiers to help him take Constantinople.[147] By the end of the 13th century, the military declined and the army was reduced to fewer than 10,000 men—it was recorded that Ivaylo defeated two Byzantine armies of 5,000 and 10,000 men, and that his troops were outnumbered in both cases.[91] Military strength increased with the political stabilization of Bulgaria in the first half of the 14th century; the army numbered 11,000–15,000 troops in the 1330s.[148] The military was well supplied withsiege equipment, includingbattering rams,siege towers, and catapults.[citation needed]
The Bulgarian army used variousmilitary tactics, relying on the experience of the soldiers and the peculiarities of the terrain. The Balkan mountains played a significant role in the military strategy and facilitated the country's defence against the strong Byzantine army. During wartime, the Bulgarians would send light cavalry to devastate the enemy lands on a broad front, pillaging villages and small towns, burning the crops, and taking people and cattle. The Bulgarian army was very mobile—for instance for four days before the Battle of Klokotnitsa, it covered a distance three times longer than theEpirote army covered in a week; in 1332, it travelled 230 km (140 miles) in five days.[148]
Inside the fortress [Sofia] there is a large and elite army, its soldiers are heavily built, moustached and look war-hardened, but are used to consume wine andrakia—in a word, jolly fellows.[149]
Ottoman commander Lala Shahin on the garrison ofSofia.
Bulgaria maintained extensive lines of fortresses to protect the country, with the capital Tarnovo in the centre. To the north were lines along both banks of theDanube river. To the south were three lines; the first along the Balkan mountains, the second alongVitosha, northern Rhodope mountains andSakar mountain, the third along the valley of the riverArda. To the west, a line ran along the valley of the riverSouth Morava.[150]
During the Second Empire, foreign and mercenary soldiers became an important part of the Bulgarian army and its tactics. Since the beginning of the rebellion of Asen and Peter, the light, mobile Cuman cavalry was used effectively against the Byzantines and later the Crusaders. Kaloyan used 14,000 cavalrymen in the Battle of Adrianople.[147] The Cuman leaders entered the ranks of the Bulgarian nobility; some of them received high military or administrative posts in the state.[151] In the 14th century, the Bulgarian army increasingly relied on foreign mercenaries, which included Western knights, Mongols,Ossetians, or Wallachians. Both Michael III Shishman and Ivan Alexander had a 3,000-strong Mongol cavalry detachment in their armies.[148] In the 1350s, emperor Ivan Alexander hired Ottoman bands, as did the Byzantine Emperor. Russians were also hired as mercenaries.[152]
A silver vessel from the 14th century Nikopol treasure
The economy of the Second Bulgarian Empire was based on agriculture, mining, traditional crafts, and trade. Agriculture and livestock breeding remained the mainstays of the Bulgarian economy between the 12th and 14th centuries. Moesia,Zagore, and Dobrudzha were known for rich harvests of grain, including high quality wheat.[153] Production of wheat, barley, and millet was also developed in most regions of Thrace.[154] The main wine-producing areas were Thrace, the Black Sea coast, and the valleys of theStruma andVardar rivers in Macedonia.[155] Production of vegetables, orchards, and grapes became increasingly important since the beginning of the 13th century.[156] The existence of large forests and pastures was favorable for livestock breeding, mainly in the mountainous and semi-mountainous regions of the country.[157]Sericulture and especiallyapiculture were well developed. Honey and wax from Zagore were the best-quality bee products in the Byzantine markets and were highly praised.[158] The forests produced wood for cutting (бранища); there were also fenced forests (забели), in which wood-cutting was banned.[159]
Economy of the Second Bulgarian Empire
The increase in the number of towns gave strong impetus to handicrafts, metallurgy, and mining. Processing of crops was traditional; products included bread, cheese, butter, and wine. Salt was extracted from thelagoon near Anchialus.[160] Leathermaking, shoemaking, carpentry, and weaving were prominent crafts. Varna was renowned for the processing of fox fur, which was used for production of luxurious clothes.[161] According to Western European sources, there was an abundance of silk in Bulgaria. ThePicardian knightRobert de Clari said that in the dowry of the Bulgarian princessMaria, " ... there was not a single horse that was not covered in red silk fabric, which was so long that dragged for seven or eight steps after each horse. And despite they travelled through mud and bad roads, none of the silk fabrics was torn—everything was preserved in grace and nobility."[162] There were blacksmiths, ironmongers, and engineers who developed catapults, battering rams, and other siege equipment, which was extensively used in the beginning of the 13th century.[163] Metalworking was developed in western Bulgaria—Chiprovtsi,Velbazhd, and Sofia, as well in Tarnovo and Messembria to the east.[164]
Coin depicting Ivan Alexander with one of his sons, co-emperor Michael Asen IV (right)
Monetary circulation and minting steadily increased throughout the period of the Second Bulgarian Empire, reaching their climax during the reign ofIvan Alexander of Bulgaria (reigned 1331–1371). Along with his recognition by the Pope, emperor Kaloyan (r. 1197–1207) acquired the right to mint coins. Well-organized mints and engraving workshops were set up in the mid-13th century, producing copper, billon, and silver coinage.[165][166] The reform was initiated by Constantine Tikh Asen (r. 1257–1277) and led to a stabilization of the monetary market in Bulgaria. The Uprising of Ivaylo and the pillage raids of the Mongols in the late 13th century destabilized the coinage, resulting in a tenfold decrease of minting activities.[167] With the stabilization of the empire since 1300, Bulgarian monarchs issued an increased number of coins, including silver ones, but were able to secure the market with domestic coins after the 1330s.[168] The erosion of the central authorities on the eve of the Ottoman invasion gave rise to primitive, anonymous, and crudely forged counterfeit coins.[169] Along with theBulgarian coinage, coins from the Byzantine Empire, Latin Empire, Venice, Serbia, the Golden Horde, and the small Balkan principalities were widely used. Due to the increase of production, there was a tendency to limit the circulation of foreign coins by the second half of the 14th century.[170] Coins were minted by some independent or semi-independent Bulgarian lords, such as Jacob Svetoslav and Dobrotitsa.[171]
ThePatriarchal Cathedral of the Holy Ascension of God in Tarnovo was the seat of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church during the Second Empire. It was part of a larger complex which accommodated the Patriarch.
Following the refoundation of Bulgaria, the recognition of the imperial title of the monarch and the restoration of the Bulgarian Patriarchate became the priority of the Bulgarian foreign policy. The continuous state of war against the Byzantine empire urged Bulgarian rulers to turn to the Papacy. In his correspondence with Pope Innocent III, Kaloyan (r. 1197–1207) demanded imperial title and a Patriarchate, basing his claims on the heritage of the First Bulgarian Empire. In return, Kaloyan promised to accept Papal suzerainty over the Bulgarian Church.[172][173] The union between Bulgaria and Rome was formalized on 7 October 1205, when Kaloyan was crowned King by a papal legate and the Archbishop Basil of Tarnovo was proclaimed Primate. In a letter to the Pope, Basil styled himselfPatriarch, against which Innocent III did not argue.[51][174] Just likeBoris I (r. 852–889) three centuries earlier, Kaloyan pursued a strictly political agenda in his negotiations with the Papacy, without sincere intentions to convert toRoman Catholicism. The union with Rome lasted until 1235 and did not affect the Bulgarian church, which continued its practices ofEastern Orthodox canons and rites.[53]
The ambition of Bulgaria to become the religious centre of the Orthodox world had a prominent place in the Second Empire's state doctrine. After the fall of Constantinople to the knights of the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Tarnovo became for a time the main centre of Orthodoxy.[175] The Bulgarian emperors were zealously collecting relics of Christian saints to boost the prestige of their capital.[176] The official recognition of the restored Bulgarian Patriarchate at the Council ofLampsacus in 1235 was a major step in that direction and gave rise to the concept of Tarnovo as a "Second Constantinople".[177] The Patriarchate vigorously opposed the papal initiative to reunite the Orthodox Church with Rome; he criticized thePatriarchate of Constantinople and the Byzantine emperor for their apparent willingness to make concessions at theSecond Council of Lyon in 1272–74. PatriarchIgnatius was called "pillar of Orthodoxy".[178] Envoys were sent to thePatriarch of Jerusalem to negotiate an anti-Byzantine alliance, which included the other two Eastern Patriarchs, but the mission achieved nothing.[179][180]
Disputes with the Patriarchate of Constantinople over the legitimacy of the Bulgarian Patriarchate intensified in the 14th century. In 1355, the Ecumenical patriarchCallistus I tried to assert his supremacy over the Bulgarian church and claimed that under the provisions of the Council of Lampsacus it remained subordinated and had to pay annual tribute to Constantinople. These claims were not supported by authentic documents and the Bulgarian religious authorities ignored them.[181]
The structure of the Bulgarian Patriarchate followed the traditions of the First Empire. The head of the Church was the Patriarch of Bulgaria, who was a member of the State Council (Sinklit) and was at times a regent.[182] The patriarch was assisted by aSynod comprising bishops, high-ranking clerics, and sometimes representatives of secular authorities. The Bulgarian Church strictly followed official state policy—PatriarchJoachim III was executed for treason because of suspected links with the Mongols.[182] The territorial extent of the Bulgarian Patriarchate varied according to territorial changes. At its height under the reign of Ivan Asen II (r. 1218–41), it consisted of 14 dioceses; Preslav, Cherven,Lovech, Sofia,Ovech, Drastar, Vidin, Serres,Philippi,Messembria, Braničevo, Belgrade, Niš, and Velbazhd; and thesees of Tarnovo and Ohrid.[183][182]
A depiction of emperor Ivan Alexander, patron of Hesychasm
Hesychasm (from Greek "stillness, rest, quiet, silence") is aneremitic tradition of prayer in the Eastern Orthodox Church that flourished in the Balkans during the 14th century. A mystical movement, Hesychasm preached a technique of mental prayer that, when repeated with proper breathing, might enable one to see thedivine light.[184] Emperor Ivan Alexander (r. 1331–71) was impressed by the practice of Hesychasm; he became a patron of Hesychastic monks. In 1335, he gave refuge toGregory of Sinai and provided funds for the construction of a monastery nearParoria in theStrandzha Mountains in the southeast of the country; it attracted clerics from Bulgaria, Byzantium, and Serbia.[185] Hesychasm established itself as the dominant ideology of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church with the work of the disciple of Gregory of Sinai. Gregory's discipleTheodosius of Tarnovo translated his writing into Bulgarian and reached his peak during the tenure of the last medieval Bulgarian patriarchEuthymius of Tarnovo (1375–94). Theodosius founded theKilifarevo Monastery near Tarnovo, which became the new Hesychastic and literary centre of the country.[185][186] Hesychastic intellectuals maintained regular connections with each other regardless of their nationalities, which significantly affected the cultural and religious exchange in the Balkans.
Bogomilism, aGnostic,dualistic sect, was founded in the 10th century during the First Bulgarian Empire.[187] It later spread throughout the Balkans and flourished after the fall of Bulgaria under Byzantine rule. The Eastern Orthodox Church considered the Bogomils, who preached civil disobedience that was particularly alarming for the state authorities, heretics.[187]
Bogomilism saw a major resurge in Bulgaria as a result of the military and political setbacks during the reign of Boril (r. 1207–18). The emperor took swift, decisive measures to suppress the Bogomils; on 11 February 1211 he presided over the firstanti-Bogomil synod in Bulgaria, which was held in Tarnovo.[188][189][190] During the discussions, the Bogomils were exposed; those who did not return to Orthodoxy were exiled. Despite the extant union with the Roman Catholic Church, the synod followed strictly the canons of the Orthodox Church. In the specially dedicatedBook of Boril, the monarch was described as "Orthodox emperor" and the Synod of Tarnovo was added to the list of Orthodox synods.[191] As a result of Boril's actions, the influence of the Bogomils was greatly reduced but was not eradicated.
Many heretical movements, includingAdamites andBarlaamism that arrived with exiles from the Byzantine Empire, established themselves in Bulgaria in the 14th century.[192] These movements, along with the Bogomilism and Judaism, were condemned by the Council of Tarnovo in 1360, which was attended by the imperial family, the patriarch, nobles, and clerics. There are no sources about the existence of Bogomils in Bulgaria after 1360, implying the sect had already been weakened and had few followers.[193] Persecution of the remaining Adamites and Barlaamists continued on a smaller scale, headed by Theodosius of Tarnovo and patriarch Euthymius.[194]
The Second Bulgarian Empire was a centre of a thriving culture that reached its peak in the mid-to-late 14th century during the reign of Ivan Alexander (r. 1331–71).[194][195] Bulgarian architecture, arts, and literature spread beyond the borders of Bulgaria intoSerbia, Wallachia,Moldavia, and the Russian principalities and affected Slavic culture.[196][197] Bulgaria was influenced by the contemporaneous Byzantine cultural trends.[197] The main cultural and spiritual centre was Tarnovo, which grew into a "Second Constantinople" or "Third Rome".[177] Bulgarian contemporaries called the city "Tsarevgrad Tarnov", theImperial city of Tarnovo, after the Bulgarian name for Constantinople—Tsarigrad.[198] Other important cultural hubs included Vidin, Sofia, Messembria, and a large number of monasteries throughout the country.
The network of cities in the Second Bulgarian Empire grew in the 13th and 14th centuries; numerous new urban centres rose to prominence. The cities were usually constructed in difficult-to-access locations and generally consisted of an inner and outer town. The nobility lived in the inner town, which included the citadel, while most citizens inhabited the outer town. There were separate neighbourhoods for the nobility, craftsmen, merchants, and foreigners.[199][200] The capital Tarnovo had three fortified hills—Tsarevets, Trapezitsa, and Momina Krepost, built along the meanders of theYantra river. Several neighbourhoods along the river's banks including separate quarters for Western Europeans and Jews.[201]
Fortresses were built on hills and plateaus—the Byzantine historianNiketas Choniates said the Bulgarian castles in the Balkan Mountains were situated "at heights above the clouds".[202] They were built with crushed stones welded together with plaster, in contrast to the monumental ensembles in the north-east of the country dating from the period of the First Empire.[202] The gates and the more vulnerable sections were secured with pinnacled towers; these were usually rectangular but there were also irregular, circular, oval, triangular, or horseshoe-shaped towers.[202]
Religious architecture was very prestigious; churches were among the most decorated and solid edifices in the country. Throughout the 13th and 14th centuries,basilicas were replaced withcruciform, domed churches with one or threenaves.[203] The church's exteriors had rich, decorative ornamentation with alternating belts of stone and brickwork. They were further decorated with green, yellow, and brown ceramic pieces.[203] This feature is seen in several churches in Messembria, including theChurch of St John Aliturgetos and the 14th centuryChurch of Christ Pantocrator—which had rows ofblind arches, four-leaved floral motifs, triangular ornaments, circularturquoise ceramics, and brickswastikafriezes running along the external walls.[204] Every church in Tsarevets—over 20—and many of the 17 churches in Trapezitsa were decorated with similar techniques.[203] A rectangularbelfry above thenarthex is a typical characteristic of thearchitecture of the Tarnovo Artistic School. Some churches, such asHoly Mother of God inAsen's Fortress built during the Byzantine rule, were reconstructed with belfries.[205]
TheChurch of the Holy Mother of God inDonja Kamenica in the western part of the Bulgarian Empire (in modern Serbia) is notable for its unusual architectural style. Its twin towers are topped off by sharp-pointed pyramidal elements, with additional sharp-pointed details in each of the pyramids' four corners. The towers and their design were entirely unusual and unprecedented in medieval Bulgarian church architecture and were an influence fromHungary orTransylvania.[206]
The ruins of a noble family's house in Tarnovo
The Imperial Palace in Tarnovo was initially a bolyar castle; it underwent two major reconstructions under Ivan Asen II (r. 1218–41) and Ivan Alexander (r. 1331–71). The palace had the shape of an irregular ellipse and a built-up area of 5,000 m2 (54,000 sq ft).[205] The walls were up to 2 m (6.6 ft) thick. The entrance gates were guarded by round and rectangular towers; the main entrance was located in the round tower of the northern façade. The edifices were built around an inner yard with a richly decorated royal church in the middle.[207] The Patriarch Palace was situated on the highest point of Tsarevets and dominated the city. Its plan resembled that of the Imperial Palace and occupied 3,000 m2 (32,000 sq ft). A four-cornered bell tower adjoined thePatriarchal Cathedral of the Holy Ascension of God. The residential and office sections were located in the southern part of the edifice.[208]
Few examples of nobility houses have survived. To the north of the Imperial Palace, the foundations of a bolyar house from the beginning of the 13th century have been excavated. It had a Г-shaped plan and consisted of a residential area and a small, one-nave church.[209] There were two types of mass dwellings; semi-dug houses and overground houses. The latter were constructed in cities and usually had two stories; the lower floor was built with crushed stones soldered with mud or plaster and the second was built with timber.[209]
The mainstream of Bulgarian fine arts in the 13th and 14th centuries is known as thepainting of the Tarnovo Artistic School. Despite being influenced by some tendencies of thePalaeogan Renaissance in the Byzantine Empire, Bulgarian painting had unique features; it was first classified as a separate artistic school by the French art historianAndré Grabar.[210][211] The school's works had some degree of realism, individualized portraits, and psychological insight.[210][212] Very little secular art of the Second Empire has survived. Fragments of murals depicting a richly decorated figure were uncovered during excavations in the throne room of the Imperial palace in Tarnovo. The walls of the throne room were probably decorated with images of Bulgarian emperors and empresses.[210]
The frescoes in theBoyana Church near Sofia are an early example of the painting of the Tarnovo Artistic School, dating from 1259; they are among the most complete and best-preserved monuments of Eastern European medieval art.[213] The portraits of the church'sktitors,Kaloyan and Desislava, and of the ruling monarch Constantine Tikh and his wifeIrene dressed with ceremonial garments, are especially realistic.[214] TheRock-hewn Churches of Ivanovo in the north-east of the country contain several churches and chapels that represent the evolution of the Bulgarian art in the 13th and 14th centuries. In paintings in churches of the first period, painted during the reign of Ivan Asen II (r. 1218–41), human figures are depicted in realistic style, with oval faces and fleshy lips. The colours of the clothing are bright, while the 14th century frescoes are in the classical style of the Palaeogan period.[214][215] Both Boyana Church and the Rock-Hewn Churches of Ivanovo are included in theUNESCOWorld Heritage List.[213][215]
In Tarnovo, no complete painting ensemble has survived. The thirty-five scenes preserved inHoly Forty Martyrs Church feature the mild tones and sense of realism characteristic of the school.[210] Fragments of frescoes were excavated in the ruins of the seventeen churches in Tarnovo's second fortified hill, Trapezitsa; among them were depictions of military figures wearing richly decorated garments.[210] The palace chapel was decorated with mosaics.[216] In western Bulgaria, local characteristics of the remnant art include archaism in the composition and unshaded tones, examples of which are found in locations includingZemen Monastery, the Church of the Holy Mother of God inDonja Kamenica, and theChurch of St Peter inBerende.[217]
Many books of the Second Bulgarian Empire contained beautifully crafted miniatures, the most notable examples being the Bulgarian translation of theManasses Chronicle, theTetraevangelia of Ivan Alexander, and theTomić Psalter, which together have 554 miniatures.[218] The style of the miniatures, which depict a variety of theological and secular events and have significant aesthetic value, was influenced by contemporaneous Byzantine works.[219]
The Tarnovo school continued; it enriched the traditions and icon designs of the First Bulgarian Empire. Some notable icons includeSt Eleusa (1342) from Messembria, which is currently kept inAlexander Nevski Cathedral in Sofia, andSt John of Rila (14th century), which is kept in Rila Monastery. Like the Boyana Church frescoes,St John of Rila uses realism and non-canonical design.[220] Some of the preserved icons feature silver platings with enamel images of saints.[220]
The main centres of literary activity were churches and monasteries, which provided primary education in basic literacy throughout the country. Some monasteries rose to prominence by providing a more advanced education, which included study of advanced grammar; biblical, theological, and ancient texts; and Greek language. Education was available to laymen; it was not restricted to the clergy. Those who completed the advanced studies were calledgramatik (граматик).[196] Books were initially written on parchment, but paper, imported via the port of Varna, was introduced at the beginning of the 14th century. At first, paper was more expensive than parchment, but by the end of the century its cost had fallen, resulting in the production of larger numbers of books.[221]
Few texts from the 12th and 13th centuries have survived.[197] Notable examples from that period include the "Book of Boril", an important source for the history of the Bulgarian Empire, and theDragan Menaion, which includes the earliest known Bulgarianhymnology and hymn tunes, as well as liturgies for Bulgarian saintsJohn of Rila,Cyril and Methodius, and emperor Peter I.[222] Two poems, written by a Byzantine poet in the court in Tarnovo and dedicated to the wedding of emperor Ivan Asen II andIrene Komnene Doukaina, have survived. The poet compared the emperor to the sun and described him as "more lovely than the day, the most pleasant in appearance".[223]
During the 14th century, literary activities in the Second Empire were supported by the court, and in particular by emperor Ivan Alexander (r. 1331–71), which combined with a number of prolific scholars and clergymen, led to a remarkable literary revival known as theTarnovo Literary School.[196][197] Literature was also patronized by some nobles and wealthy citizens.[224] Literature included translation of Greek texts and the creation of original compositions, both religious and secular. The religious books includedpraising epistles,passionals,hagiographies, and hymns. Secular literature included chronicles, poetry, novels and novellas,apocryphical tales, popular tales, such asThe Story of Troy andAlexandria, legal works, and works on medicine and natural science.[196]
A page of the 14th century Bulgarian translation of theManasses Chronicle
The first notable 14th century Bulgarian scholar was Theodosius of Tarnovo (d. 1363), who was influenced by Hesychasm and spread hesyachastic ideas in Bulgaria.[186] His most prominent disciple was Euthymius of Tarnovo (c. 1325 – c. 1403), who was Patriarch of Bulgaria between 1375 and 1393 and founder of the Tarnovo Literary School.[218] A prolific writer, Euthymius oversaw a major linguistic reform that standardized the spelling and grammar of the Bulgarian language. Until the reform, texts often had variations of spelling and grammar use. The model of the reform was not the contemporaneous language but that of thefirst golden age of Bulgarian culture in the late 9th and early 10th centuries during the First Bulgarian Empire.[225]
The Ottoman conquest of Bulgaria forced many scholars and disciples of Euthymius to emigrate, taking their texts, ideas, and talents to other Orthodox countries—Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia, and the Russian principalities. So many texts were taken to the Russian lands that scholars speak about a second South Slavonic influence on Russia.[226] The close friend and associate of Euthymius,Cyprian, becameMetropolitan of Kiev and All Rus' and took Bulgarian literary models and techniques.[197]Gregory Tsamblak worked in Serbia and Moldavia before assuming a position at Metropolitan of Kiev. He wrote a number of sermons, liturgies, and hagiographies, including a "Praising epistle for Euthymius".[197][227] Another important Bulgarian émigré wasConstantine of Kostenets, who worked in Serbia and whose biography of despotStefan Lazarević is described byGeorge Ostrogorsky as "the most important historical work of old Serbian literature".[228]
Apocryphal literature thrived in the 13th and 14th centuries, often concentrating on issues that were avoided in the official religious works. There were also many fortune-telling books that predicted events based on astrology and dreams.[229] Some of them included political elements, such as a prophecy that an earthquake that occurred at night would confuse people, who would then treat the emperor with disdain.[230] The authorities condemned apocryphal literature and included such titles in an index of banned books.[230] Nonetheless, apocryphs spread in Russia; the 16th century Russian nobleAndrey Kurbsky called them "Bulgarian fables".[230]
Pontic littoral's city and flags of Second Bulgarian Empire (Bulgarian rulers Shishman) on vexilographic maps by the end of the 13th – 17th centuries[231]
^a: Unlike the Byzantine Empire, the taxes in the First Bulgarian Empire were paid in kind.[22] ^b: Peter I (r. 927–969) was the first Bulgarian ruler who received official recognition of his imperial title by the Byzantines and enjoyed great popularity during the Byzantine rule. Two other rebel leaders were proclaimed Emperor of Bulgaria under the name Peter before Theodore.[232] ^c: The Roman and theLatin Empires were referred to by Western Europeans as "Romania".[233] The term "Franks" (in Bulgarianфръзи, in Greekfrankoi) was used by the medieval Bulgarians and Byzantines to describe the whole Catholic population of Europe and the subjects of the Latin Empire.[234] ^d: There is no information about territorial changes in the negotiations but many historians suggest that the Serbs occupied Niš at that time.[109] ^e: When there was no legitimate heir of the deceased monarch it was customary that the nobility would elect an emperor among themselves.Constantine Tikh (r. 1257–1277),George I Terter (r. 1280–1292) andMichael Shishman (r. 1323–1330) were all elected emperors by the nobility.[133]
^Matanov, Hristo (2014).В търсене на средновековното време. Неравният път на българите (VII–XV в.)(in Bulgarian), pp. 168–169 "Balkans in 1230". IK Gutenberg.ISBN9786191760183.
^Matanov, Hristo (2014).В търсене на средновековното време. Неравният път на българите (VII–XV в.) (in Bulgarian), p. 191. IK Gutenberg.ISBN9786191760183.
^S. Kempgen, Remarks on the Patron’s Inscription of the Boyana Church, its Reproductions and Unicode-based Wikipedia Representation. (2010) Scripta & eScripta, vol. 8-9, Sofia, 2010, 27–36.
^Polyvyannyy, D. (2019). Dynasticity in the Second Bulgarian Tsardom and its Manifestations in Medieval History Writing. Studia Ceranea. Journal of the Waldemar Ceran Research Centre for the History and Culture of the Mediterranean Area and South-East Europe, 9, 351-365.https://doi.org/10.18778/2084-140X.09.19 .
^Second Bulgarian Empire (1185-1393) 1185 Successful uprising of Peter and Asen (called Belgun by the cumans) against the Byzantines results in the restoration of Bulgarian statehood between the Danube and the Balkan range. The renewed Bulgarian state rapidly restored and regained its former strength. For more: The A to Z of Bulgaria, Issue 223 of A to Z Guides,Raymond Detrez, Edition2, Scarecrow Press, 2010,ISBN978-0810872028, p. XXX.
^R. J. Crampton, A Concise History of Bulgaria, Cambridge University Press, 2005,ISBN1139448234, p. 24.
^″State and Church in the XIII century, Emil Dimitrov (general editor). Synodik of tsar Boril″, (Translated from Old Bulgarian by Anna Maria Totomanova)[1]
^″State and church in the XIII century, Emil Dimitrov (general editor), CORRESPONDENCE OF THE BULGARIANS WITH POPE INOCENTIUS III.″ (Translated from Latin by Mikhail Voynov, Ivan Duychev)[2]Archived 21 October 2021 at theWayback Machine
^Boia, Lucian (1972).Romania: Borderland of Europe. p. 62.
^Dimitri Korobeinikov, A broken mirror: the Kipchak world in the 13th century. In the volume: The other Europe from the Middle Ages, Edited by Florin Curta, Brill 2008, p. 394
^Nicolle, David; Angus McBride (1988).Hungary and the Fall of Eastern Europe 1000-1568. Osprey Publishing. p. 24.The army of the Second Bulgarian Empire was not, of course, solely Cuman... Mercenaries were also recruited, including Russians.
^"Imago Mundi byHonorius Augustodunensis" in LIBI, vol. III, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, p. 66
Bogdan, Ioan (1966).Contribuţii la istoriografia bulgară şi sârbă în Scrieri alese (Contributions from the Bulgarian and Serbian Historiography in Selected Writings) (in Romanian).Bucharest: Anubis.
Андреев (Andreev), Йордан (Jordan); Лалков (Lalkov), Милчо (Milcho) (1996).Българските ханове и царе (The Bulgarian Khans and Tsars) (in Bulgarian). Велико Търново (Veliko Tarnovo): Абагар (Abagar).ISBN954-427-216-X.
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Коледаров (Koledarov), Петър (Petar) (1989).Политическа география на средновековната Българска държава, част 2 (1185–1396) (Political Geography of the Medieval Bulgarian State, Part II. From 1185 to 1396) (in Bulgarian). София (Sofia): Издателство на БАН (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Press).
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Николова (Nikolova), Бистра (Bistra) (2002).Православните църкви през Българското средновековие IX–XIV в. (The Orthodox churches during the Bulgarian Middle Ages 9th–14th century) (in Bulgarian). София (Sofia): Академично издателство "Марин Дринов" (Academic press "Marin Drinov").ISBN954-430-762-1.
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Радушев (Radushev), Ангел (Angel); Жеков (Zhekov), Господин (Gospodin) (1999).Каталог на българските средновековни монети IX–XV век (Catalogue of the Medieval Bulgarian coins IX–XV centuries) (in Bulgarian). Агато (Anubis).ISBN954-8761-45-9.
Фоменко (Fomenko), Игорь Константинович (Igor K.) (2011). "Карты-реконструкции = Reconstruction maps".Образ мира на старинных портоланах. Причерноморье. Конец XIII – XVII [The Image of the World on Old Portolans. The Black Sea Littoral from the End of the 13th – the 17th Centuries] (in Russian). Moscow: "Индрик" (Indrik).ISBN978-5-91674-145-2.
Цончева (Tsoncheva), М. (M.) (1974).Търновска книжовна школа. 1371–1971 (Tarnovo Literary School. 1371–1971) (in Bulgarian). София (Sofia).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
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