Aseason is a division of the year[1] based on changes inweather,ecology, and the number ofdaylight hours in a given region. OnEarth, seasons are the result of theaxial parallelism of Earth'stilted orbit around theSun.[2][3][4] In temperate and polar regions, the seasons are marked by changes in the intensity ofsunlight that reaches the Earth's surface, variations of which may cause animals to undergohibernation or tomigrate, and plants to be dormant. Various cultures define the number and nature of seasons based on regional variations, and as such there are a number of both modern and historical definitions of the seasons.
TheNorthern Hemisphere experiences most direct sunlight during May, June, and July (thus the traditional celebration ofMidsummer in June), as the hemisphere faces the Sun. For theSouthern Hemisphere it is instead in November, December, and January. It is Earth's axial tilt that causes the Sun to be higher in the sky during the summermonths, which increases thesolar flux. Because ofseasonal lag, June, July, and August are the warmest months in the Northern Hemisphere while December, January, and February are the warmest months in the Southern Hemisphere.
Seasons often hold special significance foragrarian societies, whose lives revolve aroundplanting andharvest times, and the change of seasons is often attended byritual. The definition of seasons is also cultural. InIndia, from ancient times to the present day, six seasons orRitu based on south Asian religious or cultural calendars are recognised and identified for purposes such as agriculture and trade.
Axial parallelism is a characteristic of the Earth (and most other orbiting bodies in space) in which the direction of the axis remains parallel to itself throughout its orbit.
The Earth's orbit exhibits approximateaxial parallelism, maintaining its direction towardPolaris (the "North Star") year-round. This is one of the primary reasons for the Earth's seasons, as illustrated by the diagram to the right.[5][6][7][8] Minor variation in the direction of the axis, known asaxial precession, takes place over the course of 26,000 years, and therefore is not noticeable to modern human civilization.
Regardless of the time of year, theNorthern Hemisphere andSouthern Hemisphere always experience opposite seasons. This is because duringsummer orwinter, one part of the planet is more directly exposed to the rays of the Sun than the other, and this exposure alternates as the Earth revolves in its orbit.
For approximately half of the year (from around March20 to around September22), the Northern Hemisphere tips toward the Sun, with the maximum amount occurring on about June21. For the other half of the year, the same happens, but in the Southern Hemisphere instead of the Northern, with the maximum around December21. The two instants when the Sun is directly overhead at theEquator are theequinoxes. Also at that moment, both theNorth Pole and theSouth Pole of the Earth are just on theterminator, and hence day and night are equally divided between the two hemispheres. Around theMarch equinox, the Northern Hemisphere will be experiencingspring as the hours ofdaylight increase, and the Southern Hemisphere is experiencingautumn as daylight hours shorten.
The effect of axial tilt is observable as the change inday length and thealtitude of the Sun at solarnoon (the Sun'sculmination) during theyear. The low angle of the Sun during the winter months means that incoming rays of solar radiation arespread over a larger area of the Earth's surface, so the light received is more indirect and of lower intensity. Between this effect and the shorter daylight hours, the axial tilt of the Earth accounts for most of the seasonal variation in climate in both hemispheres.
Illumination of Earth by Sun at the northern solstice
Illumination of Earth by Sun at the southern solstice
Illumination of Earth at each change of astronomical season
Animation of Earth as seen daily from the Sun looking atUTC+02:00, showing the solstice and changing seasons
Two images showing the amount of reflected sunlight at southern and northern summer solstices respectively (watts / m2)
Compared to axial parallelism and axial tilt, other factors contribute little to seasonal temperature changes.[4] The seasons are not the result of the variation in Earth's distance to the Sun because of itselliptical orbit.[10] In fact, Earth reachesperihelion (the point in its orbit closest to the Sun) in January, and it reachesaphelion (the point farthest from the Sun) in July, so the slight contribution oforbital eccentricity opposes the temperature trends of the seasons in the Northern Hemisphere.[11] In general, the effect of orbital eccentricity on Earth's seasons is a 7% variation in sunlight received.
Orbital eccentricity can influence temperatures, but on Earth, this effect is small and is more than counteracted by other factors; research shows that the Earth as a whole is actually slightly warmer whenfarther from the Sun. This is because the Northern Hemisphere has more land than the Southern, and land warms more readily than sea.[11]Any noticeable intensification of southern winters and summers due to Earth's elliptical orbit is mitigated by the abundance of water in the Southern Hemisphere.[12]
Seasonal weather fluctuations (changes) also depend on factors such as proximity tooceans or other large bodies of water,currents in those oceans,El Niño/ENSO and other oceanic cycles, and prevailingwinds.
In thetemperate andpolar regions, seasons are marked by changes in the amount ofsunlight, which in turn often causescycles of dormancy in plants andhibernation in animals. These effects vary withlatitude and with proximity to bodies of water. For example, theSouth Pole is in the middle of the continent ofAntarctica and therefore a considerable distance from the moderating influence of the southern oceans. TheNorth Pole is in theArctic Ocean, and thus its temperature extremes are buffered by the water. The result is that the South Pole is consistently colder during the southern winter than the North Pole during the northern winter.
The seasonal cycle in the polar and temperate zones of one hemisphere is opposite to that of the other. When it is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, it is winter in the Southern, and vice versa.
Animation of seasonal differences, notably thesnow cover in the Northern Hemisphere
Thetropical and (to a lesser degree)subtropical regions see little annual fluctuation of sunlight and temperature due to Earth's moderate 23.4-degree tilt being insufficient to appreciably affect the strength of the Sun's rays annually. The slight differences between the solstices and the equinoxes cause seasonal shifts along a rainy low-pressure belt called theIntertropical Convergence Zone (ICZ). As a result, the amount ofprecipitation tends to vary more dramatically than the average temperature or daylight hours. When the ICZ is north of the Equator, the northern tropics experience their wet season while the southern tropics have their dry season. This pattern reverses when the ICZ migrates to a position south of the Equator.
In meteorological terms, thesolstices (the maximum and minimuminsolation) do not fall in the middles of summer and winter. The heights of these seasons occur up to 7 weeks later because ofseasonal lag. Seasons, though, are not always defined in meteorological terms.
Most calendar-based partitions use a four-season model to demarcate the warmest and coldest seasons, which are further separated by two intermediate seasons. Calendar-based reckoning defines the seasons in relative rather than absolute terms, so the coldest quarter-year is considered winter even if floral activity is regularly observed during it, despite the traditional association of flowers with spring and summer. The major exception is in the tropics where, as already noted, the winter season is not observed.
The four seasons have been in use since at least Roman times, as inRerum rusticarum ofVarro[14] Varro says that spring, summer, autumn, and winter start on the 23rd day of the sun's passage through Aquarius, Taurus, Leo, and Scorpio, respectively. Nine years before he wrote,Julius Caesar had reformed the calendar, so Varro was able to assign the dates of February 7, May 9, August 11, and November 10 to the start of spring, summer, autumn, and winter.
As noted, a variety of dates and even exact times are used in different countries or regions to mark changes of the calendar seasons. These observances are often declared "official" within their respective areas by the local or national media, even when the weather or climate is contradictory.[15] These are mainly a matter of custom and not generally proclaimed by governments north or south of the equator for civil purposes.[16][17]
Four temperate and subpolar seasons: winter (top left), spring (top right), summer (bottom left), autumn
Meteorological seasons are reckoned by temperature, with summer being the hottest quarter of the year and winter the coldest quarter of the year. In 1780 theSocietas Meteorologica Palatina (which became defunct in 1795), an early international organization for meteorology, defined seasons as groupings of three whole months as identified by the Gregorian calendar.[18]According to this definition, for temperate areas in the northern hemisphere, spring begins on 1 March, summer on 1 June, autumn on 1 September, and winter on 1 December. For the southern hemisphere temperate zone, spring begins on 1 September, summer on 1 December, autumn on 1 March, and winter on 1 June.[19][20] InAustralasia the meteorological terms for seasons apply to the temperate zone that occupies all ofNew Zealand,New South Wales,Victoria,Tasmania, the south-eastern corner ofSouth Australia and the south-west of Western Australia, and the south eastQueensland areas south ofBrisbane.
In Sweden and Finland, meteorologists and news outlets use the concept of thermal seasons, which are defined based onmean daily temperatures.[22] The beginning of spring is defined as when the mean daily temperature permanently rises above 0 °C. The beginning of summer is defined as when the temperature permanently rises above +10 °C, autumn as when the temperature permanently falls below +10 °C, and winter as when the temperature permanently falls below 0 °C. In Finland, "permanently" is defined as when the mean daily averaged temperature remains above or below the defined limit for seven consecutive days. (In Sweden the number of days ranges from 5 to 7 depending on the season.) This implies two things:
the seasons do not begin on fixed dates and must be determined by observation and are known only after the fact,
the seasons begin on different dates in different parts of the country.
Winter, occurring from December to February. The year's coldest months are December and January, when temperatures average around 10–15 °C (50–59 °F) in the northwest; temperatures rise as one proceeds toward the equator, peaking around 20–25 °C (68–77 °F) in mainland India's southeast.
Summer orpre-monsoon season, lasting from March to May. In western and southern regions, the hottest month is April; for northern regions of India, May is the hottest month. Temperatures average around 32–40 °C (90–104 °F) in most of the interior.
Monsoon orrainy season, lasting from June to September. The season is dominated by the humid southwest summer monsoon, which slowly sweeps across the country beginning in late May or early June. Monsoon rains begin to recede from North India at the beginning of October. South India typically receives more rainfall.
Post-monsoon orautumn season, lasting from October to November. In the northwest of India, October and November are usually cloudless. Tamil Nadu receives most of its annual precipitation in the northeast monsoon season.
In China, a common temperature-based reckoning holds that it is winter for the period when temperatures are below 10°C on average and summer for the period when temperatures are above 22°C on average. This means that areas with relatively extreme climates (such as theParacel Islands and parts of theTibetan Plateau) may be said to have summer all year round or winter all year round.[25]
Astronomical timing as the basis for designating the temperate seasons dates back at least to theJulian Calendar used by the ancient Romans. As mentioned above,Varro wrote that spring, summer, autumn, and winter start on the 23rd day of the Sun's passage through Aquarius, Taurus, Leo, and Scorpio, respectively, and that (in the Julian Calendar) these days were February 7, May 9, August 11, and November 10. He points out that the lengths are not equal, being 91 (in non-leap years), 94, 91, and 89 days for spring, summer, autumn, and winter, respectively.[14] The midpoints of these seasons were March 24 or 25, June 25, September 25 or 26, and December 24 or 25, which are near to the equinoxes and solstices of his day.
Pliny the Elder, in hisNatural History, mentions the two equinoxes and the two solstices and gives the lengths of the intervals (values which were fairly correct in his day but are no longer very correct because theperihelion has moved from December into January). He then defines the seasons of autumn, winter, spring, and summer as starting half-way through these intervals.[32] He gives "the eighth day to the Kalends of January" (December 25) as the date of the winter solstice, though actually it occurred on the 22nd or 23rd at that time.[33]
At the present time, the astronomical timing has winter starting at the winter solstice, spring at the spring equinox, and so on. This is used worldwide, although some countries like Australia, New Zealand,[34] Pakistan and Russia prefer to use meteorological reckoning. The precise timing of the seasons is determined by the exact times of the Sun reaching the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn for thesolstices and the times of the Sun's transit over the equator for theequinoxes, or a traditional date close to these times.[35]
The following diagram shows the relation between the line of solstice and the line ofapsides of Earth's elliptical orbit. The orbital ellipse (with eccentricity exaggerated for effect) goes through each of the six Earth images, which are sequentially theperihelion (periapsis—nearest point to the Sun) on anywhere from 2 January to 5 January, the point of March equinox on 19, 20 or 21 March, the point of June solstice on 20 or 21 June, theaphelion (apoapsis—farthest point from the Sun) on anywhere from 3 July to 6 July, the September equinox on 22 or 23 September, and the December solstice on 21 or 22 December.
Exaggerated illustration of Earth's elliptical orbit around the Sun, marking that the orbital extreme points (apoapsis andperiapsis) are not the same as the four seasonal extreme points (equinox andsolstice)
These "astronomical" seasons are not of equal length, because of theelliptical nature of the orbit of the Earth, as discovered byJohannes Kepler. From the March equinox it currently takes 92.75 days until the June solstice, then 93.65 days until the September equinox, 89.85 days until the December solstice and finally 88.99 days until the March equinox. Thus the time from the March equinox to the September equinox is 7.56 days longer than from the September equinox to the March equinox.
The times of the equinoxes and solstices are not fixed with respect to the modern Gregorian calendar, but fall about six hours later every year, amounting to one full day in four years. They are reset by the occurrence of a leap year. The Gregorian calendar is designed to keep the March equinox no later than 21 March as accurately as is practical.
The calendar equinox (used in the calculation of Easter) is 21 March, the same date as in the Easter tables current at the time of the Council of Nicaea in AD 325. The calendar is therefore framed to prevent the astronomical equinox wandering onto 22 March. From Nicaea to the date of the reform, the years 500, 600, 700, 900, 1000, 1100, 1300, 1400, and 1500, which would not have been leap years in the Gregorian calendar, amount to nine extra days, but astronomers directed that ten days be removed. Because of this, the (proleptic) Gregorian calendar agrees with the Julian calendar in thethird century of theChristian era, rather than in the fourth.
Currently, the most common equinox and solstice dates are March 20, June 21, September 22 or 23, and December 21; the four-year average slowly shifts to earlier times as a century progresses. This shift is a full day in about 128 years (compensated mainly by the century "leap year" rules of the Gregorian calendar); as 2000 was a leap year, the current shift has been progressing since the beginning of the last century, when equinoxes and solstices were relatively late. This also means that in many years of the twentieth century, the dates March 21, June 22, September 23, and December 22 were much more common, so older books teach (and older people may still remember) these dates.
All the times are given inUTC (roughly speaking, the time atGreenwich, ignoringBritish Summer Time). People living farther to the east (Asia and Australia), whose local times are in advance, see the astronomical seasons apparently start later; for example, inTonga (UTC+13), an equinox occurred on September 24, 1999, a date on which the equinox will not fall again until 2103. On the other hand, people living far to the west (America), whose clocks run behind UTC, may experience an equinox as early as March 19.
Over thousands of years, the Earth'saxial tilt and orbital eccentricity vary (seeMilankovitch cycles). The equinoxes and solstices move westward relative to the stars while the perihelion and aphelion move eastward. Thus, ten thousand years from now Earth's northern winter will occur at aphelion and northern summer at perihelion. The severity of seasonal change — the average temperature difference between summer and winter in location — will also change over time because the Earth's axial tilt fluctuates between 22.1 and 24.5 degrees.
Smaller irregularities in the times are caused by perturbations of the Moon and the other planets.
The annual cycle of insolation (Sun energy, shown in blue) with key points for seasons (middle),quarter days (top) andcross-quarter days (bottom) along with months (lower) and Zodiac houses (upper). The cycle of temperature (shown in pink) is delayed byseasonal lag.
Solar timing is based on insolation in which the solstices and equinoxes are seen as the midpoints of the seasons. This was the case with the seasons described by the Roman scholarVarro (see above). It was the method for reckoning seasons in medieval Europe, especially by theCelts, and is still ceremonially observed inIreland and some East Asian countries. Summer is defined as the quarter of the year with the greatest insolation and winter as the quarter with the least.
The solar seasons change at the cross-quarter days, which are about 3–4 weeks earlier than the meteorological seasons and 6–7 weeks earlier than seasons starting at equinoxes and solstices. Thus, the day of greatest insolation is designated "midsummer" as noted inWilliam Shakespeare's playA Midsummer Night's Dream, which is set on the summer solstice. On theCeltic calendar, the start of the seasons corresponds to fourPagan agricultural festivals – the traditional first day of winter is 1 November (Samhain, the Celtic origin ofHalloween); spring starts 1 February (CelticImbolc); summer begins 1 May (Beltane, the Celtic origin ofMay Day); the first day of autumn is 1 August (CelticLughnasadh).
The traditional calendar in China has 4 seasons based on 24 periods, twelve of which are calledzhōngqi and twelve of which are known asjiéqi.[36] These periods are collectively known in English as "solar terms" or "solar breaths".[37] The four seasonschūn (春),xià (夏),qiū (秋), anddōng (冬)—translated as "spring", "summer", "autumn", and "winter"[38]—each center on the respective solstice or equinox.[39] Astronomically, the seasons are said to begin onLichun (立春, "the start of spring") on about 4 February,Lixia (立夏) on about 6 May,Liqiu (立秋) on about 8 August, andLidong (立冬) on about 8 November. This system forms the basis of other such systems in East Asian lunisolar calendars.[36]
Some traditional calendars count a fifth season. In Europe, this is related to the English concept ofMidsummer, High Summer or theDog days, and related also to Spanish distinctions betweenprimavera, estío andverano.[40]
In the Far East this five-season cycle is related toWuxing (Five Phases) cosmology. In Chinese there is an expression for a ‘late summer’,chángxià (長夏).[41] There is also across the Far East the related concept of a“plum rain” or rainy season,méiyǔ 梅雨 in Mandarin,jangma 장마 in Korean,tsuyu 梅雨 in Japanese.
Some calendars in south Asia use a six-season partition where the number of seasons between summer and winter can number from one to three. The dates are fixed at even intervals of months.
In theHindu calendar of tropical and subtropical India, there are six seasons orRitu that are calendar-based in the sense of having fixed dates:Vasanta (spring),Grishma (summer),Varsha (monsoon),Sharada (autumn),Hemanta (early winter), andShishira (prevernal or late winter). The six seasons are ascribed to two months each of the twelve months in the Hindu calendar. The rough correspondences are:
The six modern mid-latitude ecological seasons. From bottom, clockwise: prevernal, vernal, estival, serotinal, autumnal, hibernalSeasonal changes of a tree over a year
Ecologically speaking, a season is a period of the year in which only certain types of floral and animal events happen (e.g.: flowers bloom—spring;hedgehogs hibernate—winter). So, if a change in daily floral and animal events can be observed, the season is changing. In this sense, ecological seasons are defined in absolute terms, unlike calendar-based methods in which the seasons are relative. If specific conditions associated with a particular ecological season do not normally occur in a particular region, then that area cannot be said to experience that season on a regular basis.[citation needed]
Six ecological seasons can be distinguished without fixed calendar-based dates like the meteorological and astronomical seasons.[42]Oceanic regions tend to experience the beginning of the hibernal season up to a month later thancontinental climates. Conversely, prevernal and vernal seasons begin up to a month earlier near oceanic and coastal areas. For example, prevernalcrocus blooms typically appear as early as February in coastal areas ofBritish Columbia, theBritish Isles, but generally do not appear until March or April in locations like theMidwestern United States and parts of easternEurope. The actual dates for each season vary by climate region and can shift from one year to the next. Average dates listed here are for mild and cool temperate climate zones in the Northern Hemisphere:
Prevernal (early or pre-spring): Begins February (mild temperate), to March (cool temperate). Deciduous tree buds begin to swell. Some types of migrating birds fly from winter to summer habitats.
Vernal (spring): Begins mid March (mild temperate), to late April (cool temperate). Tree buds burst into leaves. Birds establish territories and begin mating and nesting.
Estival (high summer): Begins June in most temperate climates. Trees in full leaf. Birds hatch and raise offspring.
Serotinal (late summer): Generally begins mid to late August. Deciduous leaves begin to change color in higher latitude locations (above 45 north). Young birds reach maturity and join other adult birds preparing for autumn migration. The traditional "harvest season" begins by early September.
Autumnal (autumn): Generally begins mid to late September. Tree leaves in full color then turn brown and fall to the ground. Birds migrate back to wintering areas.
Hibernal (winter): Begins December (mild temperate), November (cool temperate). Deciduous trees are bare and fallen leaves begin to decay. Migrating birds settled in winter habitats.
Indigenous people in polar, temperate and tropical climates of northern Eurasia, the Americas, Africa, Oceania, and Australia have traditionally defined the seasons ecologically by observing the activity of the plants, animals and weather around them. Each separate tribal group traditionally observes different seasons determined according to local criteria that can vary from the hibernation of polar bears on the arctic tundras to thegrowing seasons of plants in the tropical rainforests. In Australia, some tribes have up to eight seasons in a year,[19] as do the Sami people in Scandinavia. Many indigenous people who no longer live directly off the land in traditional often nomadic styles, now observe modern methods of seasonal reckoning according to what is customary in their particular country or region.
The North AmericanCree and possibly otherAlgonquian speaking peoples used or still use a 6-season system. The extra two seasons denoting the freezing and breaking up of the ice on rivers and lakes.[citation needed]
Cree season
Approximate months
English translation
Pipon
Jan/Feb
Winter
Sekwun
Mar/Apr
Break-up
Mithoskumin
May/Jun
Spring
Nepin
Jul/Aug
Summer
Tukwakin
Sep/Oct
Autumn
Mikiskaw
Nov/Dec
Freeze-up
TheNoongar people of South-West Western Australia recognise maar-keyen bonar,[43] or six seasons. Each season's arrival is heralded not by a calendar date, but by environmental factors[44] such as changing winds, flowering plants, temperature and migration patterns and lasts approximately two standard calendar months. The seasons also correlate to aspects of the human condition, intrinsically linking the lives of the people to the world that surrounds them and also dictating their movements, as with each season, various parts of country would be visited which were particularly abundant or safe from the elements.[45]
In the tropics, where seasonal dates also vary, it is more common to speak of therainy (or wet, ormonsoon) season versus thedry season. For example, inNicaragua the dry season (November to April) is called "summer" and the rainy season (May to October) is called "winter", even though it is located in the northern hemisphere. There is no noticeable change in the amount of sunlight at different times of the year. Instead, many regions (such as the northernIndian Ocean) have varyingmonsoonrain and wind cycles.
Floral and animal activity variation near the equator depends more on wet/dry cycles than seasonal temperature variations, with different species flowering (or emerging from cocoons) at specific times before, during, or after the monsoon season. Thus, the tropics are characterized by numerous "mini-seasons" within the larger seasonal blocks of time.
In the tropical parts of Australia in the northern parts ofQueensland,Western Australia, and theNorthern Territory, wet and dry seasons are observed in addition to or in place of temperate season names.[46]
The most historically important of these are the three seasons—flood,growth, andlow water—which were previously defined by theformer annual flooding of theNile inEgypt. In some tropical areas a three-way division into hot, rainy, and cool season is used. In Thailand three seasons are recognised[47]
Any point north of theArctic Circle or south of theAntarctic Circle will have one period in the summer called "polar day" when the sun does not set, and one period in the winter called 'polar night' when the sun does not rise. At progressively higher latitudes, the maximum periods of "midnight sun" and "polar night" are progressively longer.
For example, at the military and weather stationAlert located at 82°30′05″N and 62°20′20″W, on the northern tip ofEllesmere Island,Canada (about 450nautical miles or 830 km from the North Pole), the Sun begins to peek above the horizon for minutes per day at the end of February and each day it climbs higher and stays up longer; by 21 March, the Sun is up for over 12 hours. On 6 April the Sun is perceived as rising at 0522UTC and remains above the horizon until it sets below the horizon again on 6 September at 0335 UTC. By October 13 the Sun is above the horizon for only 1 hour 30 minutes, and on October 14 it does not rise above the horizon at all and remains below the horizon until it rises again on 27 February.[48]
First light comes in late January because the sky hastwilight, being a glow on the horizon, for increasing hours each day, for more than a month before the Sun first appears with its disc above the horizon. From mid-November to mid-January, there is no twilight.
In the weeks surrounding 21 June, in the northern polar region, the Sun is at its highest elevation, appearing to circle the sky there without going below the horizon. Eventually, it does go below the horizon, for progressively longer periods each day until around the middle of October, when it disappears for the last time until the following February. For a few more weeks, "day" is marked by decreasing periods of twilight. Eventually, from mid-November to mid-January, there is no twilight and it is continuously dark. In mid-January the first faint wash of twilight briefly touches the horizon (for just minutes per day), and then twilight increases in duration with increasing brightness each day until sunrise at end of February, then on 6 April the Sun remains above the horizon until mid-October.
Seasonal weather and climate conditions can become important in the context of military operations. Seasonal reckoning in the military of any country or region tends to be very fluid and based mainly on short to medium term weather conditions that are independent of the calendar.
For navies, the presence of accessible ports and bases can allow naval operations during certain (variable) seasons of the year. The availability ofice-free orwarm-water ports can make navies much more effective. ThusRussia, historically navally constrained when confined to usingArkhangelsk (before the 18th century) and evenKronstadt, has particular interests in maintaining and in preserving access toBaltiysk,Vladivostok, andSevastopol.[49]Storm seasons or polar winter-weather conditions can inhibit surface warships at sea.
Pre-modern armies, especially in Europe, tended to campaign in the summer months - peasantconscripts tended to melt away atharvest time, nor did it make economic sense in an agricultural society to neglect thesowing season.[50]Any modernwar of manoeuvre profits from firm ground – summer can provide dry conditions suitable for marching and transport, frozen snow in winter can also offer a reliable surface for a period, butspring thaws or autumn rains can inhibit campaigning. Rainy-season floods may make rivers temporarily impassable, and winter snow tends to block mountain passes. Taliban offensives are usually confined to theAfghanistan fighting season.
^abLerner, K. Lee; Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth (2003).World of earth science. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson-Gale. p. 487.ISBN0-7876-9332-4.OCLC60695883.Although these distances seem counterintuitive to residents of the Northern Hemisphere who experience summer in July and winter in January — the seasons are not nearly as greatly affected by distance as they are by changes in solar illumination caused by the fact that Earth's polar axis is inclined 23.5 degrees from the perpendicular to the ecliptic (the plane of the solar system through or near which most of the planet's orbits travel) and because the Earth exhibits parallelism (currently toward Polaris, the North Star) as it revolves about the Sun.
^Cain, Fraiser (10 March 2009)."Tilt of the Earth".Universe Today. Retrieved2 May 2014.
^"Fundamentals of physical geography",PhysicalGeography.net, Ch. 6: Energy and Matter:(h) Earth-Sun Geometry,[1]Archived 2006-07-06 at theWayback Machine
^In a space of four years, the solstice occurs latest in the Julian Calendar in the year before a leap year. In 2019, it occurred on the 22nd in the Gregorian Calendar, or December 9 in the Julian, at 4:19 AM, according toEarth's Seasons Equinoxes, Solstices, Perihelion, and AphelionArchived 2007-10-13 at theWayback Machine. The number of days between successive winter solstices varied from 365.242883 to 365.242740 between the year 1 BC and AD 2000, according toMeeus, J.; Savoie, D. (1992). "The history of the tropical year".Journal of the British Astronomical Association.102 (1):40–42.Bibcode:1992JBAA..102...40M.. Therefore, the average value over the last 2000 years has been 365.24281 days, 0.00719 days less than an average Julian year. This means the solstice was 2000×0.00719=14.38 days later, that is, on December 23 in the middle of the day. A hundred years earlier it would have been on the 24th.
^"Earth's Seasons".Astronomical Applications Department. The United States Naval Observatory (USNO). September 21, 2015. Archived fromthe original on October 13, 2007. RetrievedJune 23, 2017.
^abDershowitz, Nachum; Reingold, Edward M. (2008).Calendrical Calculations, Third Edition. Cambridge University Press. pp. 248–249.
^Martzloff, Jean-Claude (2016).Astronomy and Calendars: The Other Chinese Mathematics, 104 BC–AD 1644. Springer-Verlag. p. 63.
^Li, Wendan (2009).Chinese Writing and Calligraphy. University of Hawaii Press. p. 161.
^Martzloff, Jean-Claude (2016).Astronomy and Calendars: The Other Chinese Mathematics, 104 BC–AD 1644. Springer-Verlag. p. 64.
^The current term for Summer,verano, used to bea synonym forprimavera (nowadays meaning Spring), both distinct fromestío.
^Stokke, Olav Schram;Tunander, Ola;Nansen, Fridtjof, eds. (1994).The Barents region: cooperation in Arctic Europe. International Peace Research Institute, Oslo Prio Series. Vol. 10 (reprint ed.). SAGE. p. 98.ISBN9780803978973. Retrieved21 August 2019.Witte wanted the main base of the Russian Navy to be situated at a location where waters were ice-free the whole year round [...].
^Cornell, Tim J.; Allen, Thomas B., eds. (2002). "Games and war in Ancient Greece: Discussion".War and Games. Studies on the nature of war. Vol. 3. Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press. p. 34.ISBN9780851158709. Retrieved21 August 2019.The warriors are farmers and the farmers are warriors, so you have to time your war in relation to the harvest and to other agricultural events. [...] Spring and autumn marked the beginning and end of the campaign season, and the rest of the year was closed for war.
Maris, Mihaela, St. Luchian School, Bacau, Romania,Seasonal Variations of the Bird Species, ref. ecological seasons pp. 195–196 incl. and pp. 207–209 incl.
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