Seafood is any form ofsea life regarded as food by humans, prominently includingfish andshellfish. Shellfish include various species ofmolluscs (e.g., bivalve molluscs such asclams,oysters, andmussels, andcephalopods such as octopus and squid),crustaceans (e.g. shrimp, crabs, and lobster), andechinoderms (e.g. sea cucumbers and sea urchins). Historically,marine mammals such ascetaceans (whales anddolphins) as well asseals have been eaten as food, though that happens to a lesser extent in modern times. Edible sea plants such as someseaweeds andmicroalgae are widely eaten assea vegetables around the world, especially in Asia.
Seafood is an important source of (animal)protein in manydiets around the world, especially in coastal areas.Semi-vegetarians who consume seafood as the only source of meat are said to adhere topescetarianism.
The harvesting ofwild seafood is usually known asfishing orhunting, while the cultivation and farming of seafood is known asaquaculture andfish farming (in the case of fish). Most of the seafood harvest is consumed by humans, but a significant proportion is used asfish food to farm other fish or rearfarm animals. Some seafoods (i.e.kelp) are used as food for other plants (afertilizer). In these ways, seafoods are used to produce further food for human consumption. Also, products such asfish oil,spirulina tablets, fish collagen, andchitin are made from seafoods. Some seafood is fed toaquarium fish, or used to feed domestic pets such ascats. A small proportion is used in medicine or is used industrially for nonfood purposes (e.g.leather).
Various foods depicted in an Egyptian burial chamber, including fish,c. 1400 BCE
The harvesting, processing, and consuming of seafoods are ancient practices with archaeological evidence dating back well into thePaleolithic.[2][3] Findings in asea cave atPinnacle Point inSouth Africa indicateHomo sapiens (modern humans) harvested marine life as early as 165,000 years ago,[2] while theNeanderthals, an extinct human species contemporary with earlyHomo sapiens, appear to have been eating seafood at sites along the Mediterranean coast beginning around the same time.[4] Isotopic analysis of the skeletal remains ofTianyuan man, a 40,000-year-oldanatomically modern human from eastern Asia, has shown that he regularly consumed freshwater fish.[5][6]Archaeology features such asshell middens,[7] discarded fish bones, andcave paintings show that sea foods were important for survival and consumed in significant quantities. During this period, most people lived ahunter-gatherer lifestyle and were, of necessity, constantly on the move. However, early examples of permanent settlements (though not necessarily permanently occupied), such as those atLepenski Vir, were almost always associated with fishing as a major source of food.
The ancientriverNile was full of fish; fresh and dried fish were a staple food for much of the population.[8] TheEgyptians had implements and methods for fishing and these are illustrated intomb scenes, drawings, andpapyrus documents. Some representations hint at fishing being pursued as a pastime.
Worldfisheries harvest, both wild and farmed, in million tonnes, 1950–2010[9]
Worldfisheries harvest, wild capture versus aquaculture production, in million tonnes 1950–2010[9]
Fishing scenes are rarely represented inancient Greek culture, a reflection of the low social status of fishing. However,Oppian of Corycus, a Greek author wrote a major treatise on sea fishing, theHalieulica orHalieutika, composed between 177 and 180. This is the earliest such work to have survived to the modern day. The consumption of fish varied by the wealth and location of the household. In the Greek islands and on the coast, fresh fish and seafood (squid,octopus, andshellfish) were common. They were eaten locally but more often transported inland.Sardines andanchovies were regular fare for the citizens of Athens. They were sometimes sold fresh, but more frequently salted. Astele of the late 3rd century BCE from the small Boeotian city ofAkraiphia, onLake Copais, provides us with a list of fish prices. The cheapest wasskaren (probablyparrotfish) whereasAtlantic bluefin tuna was three times as expensive.[10] Common salt water fish wereyellowfin tuna,red mullet,ray,swordfish, orsturgeon, a delicacy that was eaten salted. Lake Copais itself was famous in all of Greece for itseels, celebrated by the hero ofThe Acharnians. Other freshwater fish werepike fish,carp, and the less appreciatedcatfish.
Pictorial evidence ofRoman fishing comes frommosaics.[11] At a certain time, thegoatfish was considered the epitome of luxury, above all because its scales exhibit a bright red colour when it dies out of water. For this reason, these fish were occasionally allowed to die slowly at the table. There even was a recipe where this would take placein Garo, in thesauce. At the beginning of the Imperial era, however, this custom suddenly came to an end, which is whymullus in the feast ofTrimalchio (seetheSatyricon) could be shown as a characteristic of theparvenu, who bores his guests with an unfashionable display of dying fish.
Inmedieval times, seafood was less prestigious than other animal meats, and was often seen as merely an alternative to meat on fast days. Still, seafood was the mainstay of many coastal populations.Kippers made from herring caught in theNorth Sea could be found in markets as far away asConstantinople.[12] While large quantities of fish were eaten fresh, a large proportion was salted, dried, and, to a lesser extent, smoked.Stockfish - cod that was split down the middle, fixed to a pole, and dried - was very common, though preparation could be time-consuming, and meant beating the dried fish with a mallet before soaking it in water. A wide range ofmollusks (includingoysters,mussels andscallops) were eaten by coastal and river-dwelling populations, and freshwatercrayfish were seen as a desirable alternative to meat during fish days. Compared to meat, fish was much more expensive for inland populations, especially in Central Europe, and therefore not an option for most.[13]
Modern knowledge of the reproductive cycles of aquatic species has led to the development ofhatcheries and improved techniques offish farming andaquaculture. A better understanding of thehazards of eating raw and undercooked fish and shellfish has led to improved preservation methods and processing.
The following table is based on the ISSCAAP classification (International Standard Statistical Classification of Aquatic Animals and Plants) used by theFAO to collect and compile fishery statistics.[14] The production figures have been extracted from the FAO FishStat database,[15] and include both capture from wild fisheries and aquaculture production.
Demersal fish live and feed on or near the bottom of the sea.[16] Some seafood groups arecod,flatfish,grouper andstingrays. Demersal fish feed mainly on crustaceans they find on the sea floor, and are more sedentary than the pelagic fish. Pelagic fish usually have the red flesh characteristic of the powerful swimming muscles they need, while demersal fish usually have white flesh.
Bivalves, sometimes referred to asclams, have a protective shell in two hinged parts. Avalve is the name used for the protective shell of a bivalve, so bivalve literally meanstwo shells. Important seafood bivalves includeoysters,scallops,mussels andcockles. Most of these arefilter feeders which bury themselves in sediment on theseabed where they are safe frompredation. Others lie on the sea floor or attach themselves to rocks or other hard surfaces. Some, such as scallops, canswim. Bivalves have long been a part of the diet of coastal communities. Oysters werecultured in ponds by the Romans andmariculture has more recently become an important source of bivalves for food.
Cephalopods, except fornautilus, are not protected by an external shell. Cephalopod literally meanshead-foots, because they have limbs which appear to issue from their head. They have excellent vision and high intelligence. Cephalopods propel themselves with a water jet and lay down "smoke screens" withink. Examples areoctopus,squid andcuttlefish. They are eaten in many cultures. Depending on the species, the arms and sometimes other body parts are prepared in various ways. Octopus must be boiled properly to rid it of slime, smell, and residual ink. Squid are popular in Japan. In Mediterranean countries and in English-speaking countries squid are often referred to ascalamari.[17] Cuttlefish is less eaten than squid, though it is popular in Italy anddried, shredded cuttlefish is a snack food in East Asia.See:Squid (food),Octopus (food).
Crustaceans (from Latincrusta, meaningcrust) are invertebrates with segmented bodies protected by hard crusts (shells orexoskeletons), usually made ofchitin and structured somewhat like aknight's armour. The shells do not grow, and must periodically be shed ormoulted. Usually two legs or limbs issue from each segment. Most commercial crustaceans aredecapods, that is they have ten legs, and havecompound eyes set onstalks. Their shell turns pink or red when cooked.
Shrimp and prawns are small, slender, stalk-eyed ten-legged crustaceans with long spinyrostrums. They are widespread, and can be found near the seafloor of most coasts and estuaries, as well as in rivers and lakes. They play important roles in thefood chain. There are numerous species, and usually there is a species adapted to any particular habitat. Any small crustacean which resembles a shrimp tends to be called one.[18]See:shrimp (food),shrimp fishery,shrimp farming,freshwater prawn farming.
Crabs are stalk-eyed ten-legged crustaceans, usually walk sideways, and have graspingclaws as their front pair of limbs. They have smallabdomens, shortantennae, and a shortcarapace that is wide and flat. Also usually included areking crabs andcoconut crabs, even if these belongs to a different group of decapods than the true crabs.See:crab fisheries.
Clawed lobsters andspiny lobsters are stalk-eyed ten-legged crustaceans with long abdomens. The clawed lobster has large asymmetrical claws for its front pair of limbs, one for crushing and one for cutting(pictured). The spiny lobster lacks the large claws, but has a long, spiny antennae and a spiny carapace. Lobsters are larger than most shrimp or crabs.See:lobster fishing.
Krill resemble small shrimp, however they have externalgills and more than ten legs (swimming plus feeding and grooming legs). They are found in oceans around the world where theyfilter feed in huge pelagicswarms.[21] Like shrimp, they are an important part of the marine food chain, convertingphytoplankton into a form larger animals can consume. Each year, larger animals eat half the estimated biomass of krill (about 600 million tonnes).[21] Humans consume krill in Japan and Russia, but most of the krill harvest is used to makefish feed and for extracting oil. Krill oil contains omega-3 fatty acids, similar tofish oil.See:Krill fishery.
Marine mammals form a diverse group of 128 species that rely on the ocean for their existence.[23] Whale meat is still harvested from legal, non-commercial hunts.[24] About one thousandlong-finned pilot whales are still killed annually.[25] Japan has resumed hunting for whales, which they call "research whaling".[26] In modern Japan, two cuts of whale meat are usually distinguished: the belly meat and the more valued tail or fluke meat. Fluke meat can sell for $200 per kilogram, three times the price of belly meat.[27]Fin whales are particularly desired because they are thought to yield the best quality fluke meat.[28] InTaiji in Japan and parts of Scandinavia such as theFaroe Islands,dolphins are traditionally considered food, and are killed inharpoon ordrive hunts.[29]Ringed seals are still an important food source for the people ofNunavut[30] and are also hunted and eaten in Alaska.[31] The meat of sea mammals can be high in mercury, and may pose health dangers to humans when consumed.[32] The FAO records only the reported numbers of aquatic mammals harvested, and not the tonnage. In 2010, it reported 2500 whales, 12,000 dolphins and 182,000 seals.See:marine mammals as food,whale meat,seal hunting.
Sea turtles have long been valued as food in many parts of the world. Fifth century BC Chinese texts describe sea turtles as exotic delicacies.[33] Sea turtles are caught worldwide, although in many countries it is illegal to hunt most species.[34] Many coastal communities around the world depend on sea turtles as a source of protein, often gathering sea turtle eggs, and keeping captured sea turtles alive on their backs until needed for consumption.[35] Most species of sea turtle are now endangered, and some arecritically endangered.[36]
Echinoderms are headless invertebrates, found on theseafloor in all oceans and at all depths. They are not found in fresh water. They usually have a five-pointed radial symmetry, and move, breathe and perceive with their retractabletube feet. They are covered with a calcareous and spikytest or skin. The name echinoderm comes from the Greekekhinos meaninghedgehog, anddermatos meaningskin. Echinoderms used for seafood includesea cucumbers,sea urchins, and occasionallystarfish. Wild sea cucumbers are caught by divers and in China they are farmed commercially in artificial ponds.[37] Thegonads of both male and female sea urchins, usually called sea urchinroe or corals,[38] are delicacies in many parts of the world.[39][40]
Jellyfish are soft and gelatinous, with a body shaped like an umbrella or bell which pulsates for locomotion. They have long, trailing tentacles with stings for capturing prey. They are found free-swimming in thewater column in all oceans, and are occasionally found in freshwater. Jellyfish must be dried within hours to prevent spoiling. In Japan they are regarded as a delicacy. Traditional processing methods are carried out by a jellyfish master. This involve a 20 to 40-day multi-phase procedure which starts with removing the gonads andmucous membranes. The umbrella and oral arms are then treated with a mixture oftable salt andalum, and compressed. Processing reduces liquefaction, odor, the growth of spoilage organisms, and makes the jellyfish drier and more acidic, producing a crisp and crunchy texture. Onlyscyphozoan jellyfish belonging to the orderRhizostomeae are harvested for food; about 12 of the approximately 85 species. Most of the harvest takes place in southeast Asia.[41][42][43]
Seaweed is a loose colloquial term which lacks a formal definition. Broadly, the term is applied to the larger,macroscopic forms ofalgae, as opposed tomicroalga. Examples of seaweed groups are the multicellularred,brown andgreen algae.[44] Edible seaweeds usually contain high amounts of fibre and, in contrast to terrestrial plants, contain acomplete protein.[45] Seaweeds are used extensively as food in coastal cuisines around the world. Seaweed has been a part of diets inChina,Japan, andKorea since prehistoric times.[46] Seaweed is also consumed in many traditional European societies, inIceland and westernNorway, the Atlantic coast ofFrance, northern and westernIreland,Wales and some coastal parts of South West England,[47] as well as Nova Scotia and Newfoundland.See:edible seaweed,seaweed farming,aquaculture of giant kelp,laverbread.
Microphytes are microscopic organisms, and can be algal, bacterial or fungal.Microalgae are another type of aquatic plant, and includes species that can be consumed by humans and animals. Some species of aquatic bacteria can also be used as seafood, such asspirulina(pictured in tablet form), a type ofcyanobacteria.See:culture of microalgae in hatcheries.
Livefood fish are often transported in tanks at high expense for aninternational market that prefers its seafood killed immediately before it is cooked. Delivery of live fish without water is also being explored.[49] While some seafoodrestaurants keep live fish inaquaria for display purposes or cultural beliefs, the majority of live fish are kept for dining customers. The live food fish trade inHong Kong, for example, is estimated to have driven imports of live food fish to more than 15,000tonnes in 2000. Worldwide sales that year were estimated at US$400 million, according to the World Resources Institute.[50]
If thecool chain has not been adhered to correctly, food products generally decay and become harmful before thevalidity date printed on the package. As the potential harm for a consumer when eating rotten fish is much larger than for example with dairy products, theU.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has introduced regulation in the USA requiring the use of atime temperature indicator on certain fresh chilled seafood products.[51]
Because fresh fish is highly perishable, it must be eaten promptly or discarded; it can be kept for only a short time. In many countries, fresh fish arefilleted and displayed for sale on a bed ofcrushed ice orrefrigerated. Fresh fish is most commonly found near bodies of water, but the advent of refrigeratedtrain andtrucktransportation has made fresh fish more widely available inland.[52]
Long termpreservation of fish is accomplished in a variety of ways. The oldest and still most widely used techniques aredrying andsalting.Desiccation (complete drying) is commonly used to preserve fish such ascod. Partial drying and salting are popular for the preservation of fish likeherring andmackerel. Fish such assalmon,tuna, andherring are cooked andcanned. Most fish are filleted before canning, but some small fish (e.g.sardines) are onlydecapitated and gutted before canning.[53]
Seafood is consumed all over the world; it provides the world's prime source of high-qualityprotein: 14–16% of the animal protein consumed worldwide, with over one billion people reliant on seafood as their primary source of animal protein.[54][55] Fish is among the most commonfood allergens.
Since 1960, annual global seafood consumption has more than doubled to over 20 kg per capita. Among the top consumers are Korea (78.5 kg per head), Norway (66.6 kg) and Portugal (61.5 kg).[56]
The UKFood Standards Agency recommends that at least two portions of seafood should be consumed each week, one of which should be oil-rich. There are over 100 different types of seafood available around the coast of the UK.
Oil-rich fish such asmackerel orherring are rich in long-chainomega-3 oils. These oils are found in every cell of the human body, and are required for human biological functions such as brain functionality.
Whitefish such as haddock and cod are very low in fat and calories which, combined with oily fish rich in omega-3 such asmackerel,sardines, freshtuna,salmon andtrout, can help to protect againstcoronary heart disease, as well as helping to develop strong bones and teeth.
Shellfish are particularly rich inzinc, which is essential for healthy skin and muscles as well as fertility.Casanova reputedly ate 50oysters a day.[57][58]
Over 33,000species of fish and many more marine invertebrate species have been identified.[59] Bromophenols, which are produced by marine algae, give marine animals an odor and taste that is absent from freshwater fish and invertebrates. Also, a chemical substance called dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) that is found in red and green algae is transferred into animals in the marine food chain. When broken down, dimethyl sulfide (DMS) is produced, and is often released during food preparation when fresh fish and shellfish are heated. In small quantities it creates a specific smell one associates with the ocean, but in larger quantities gives the impression of rotten seaweed and old fish.[60] Another molecule known asTMAO occurs in fishes and gives them a distinct smell. It also exists in freshwater species, but becomes more numerous in the cells of an animal the deeper it lives, so fish from the deeper parts of the ocean have a stronger taste than species that live in shallow water.[61] Eggs from seaweed contain sex pheromones called dictyopterenes, which are meant to attract the sperm. These pheromones are also found in edible seaweeds, which contributes to their aroma.[62]
Fish consumption has been associated with a decreased risk ofdementia,lung cancer andstroke.[71][72][73] A 2020umbrella review concluded that fish consumption reduces all-cause mortality, cancer, cardiovascular disease, stroke and other outcomes. The review suggested that two to four servings per week is generally safe.[74] However, two other recent umbrella reviews have found no statistically significant associations between fish consumption and cancer risks and have cautioned researchers when it comes to interpreting reported associations between fish consumption and cancer risks because the quality of evidence is very low.[75][76]
The parts of fish containing essential fats and micronutrients, often cited as primary health benefits of eating seafood, are frequently discarded in thedeveloped world.[77]Micronutrients including calcium, potassium, selenium, zinc, and iodine are found in their highest concentrations in the head, intestines, bones, and scales.[78]
Government recommendations promote moderate consumption of fish. TheUS Food and Drug Administration recommends moderate (4 oz for children and 8–12 oz for adults, weekly) consumption of fish as part of a healthy and balanced diet.[79]The UK National Health Service gives similar advice, recommending at least 2 portions (about 10 oz) of fish weekly.[80] TheChinese National Health Commission recommends slightly more, advising 10–20 oz of fish weekly.[81]
Barracuda found in Florida are avoided due to a high risk of ciguatera. The same fish found in Belize presents a lesser risk due to the lower prevalence of ciguatera-causing dinoflagellates in the Caribbean. Thus, knowing a fish's origin and life history is essential to determining its health hazards.Organic and inorganic compounds includingmethylmercury,microplastics, andpolychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) can bioaccumulate to dangerous levels inapex predators likeswordfish andmarlin.
There are numerous factors to consider when evaluating health hazards in seafood. These concerns include marine toxins, microbes,foodborne illness,radionuclide contamination, and man-made pollutants.[77]Shellfish are among the more commonfood allergens.[82] Most of these dangers can be mitigated or avoided with accurate knowledge of when and where seafood is caught. However, consumers have limited access to relevant and actionable information in this regard and the seafood industry's systemic problems with mislabelling make decisions about what is safe even more fraught.[83]
Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) is an illness resulting from consuming toxins produced bydinoflagellates which bioaccumulate in the liver, roe, head, and intestines ofreef fish.[84] It is the most common disease associated with seafood consumption and poses the greatest risk to consumers.[77] The population of plankton that produces these toxins varies significantly over time and location, as seen inred tides. Evaluating the risk of ciguatera in any given fish requires specific knowledge of its origin and life history, information that is often inaccurate or unavailable.[85] While ciguatera is relatively widespread compared to other seafood-related health hazards (up to 50,000 people suffer from ciguatera every year), mortality is very low.[86]
Scombroid food poisoning, is also a seafood illness. It is typically caused by eating fish high in histamine from being stored or processed improperly.[87]
Fish andshellfish have a natural tendency to concentrate inorganic and organic toxins and pollutants in their bodies, includingmethylmercury, a highly toxic organic compound of mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and microplastics. Species of fish that are high on thefood chain, such asshark,swordfish,king mackerel,albacore tuna, andtilefish contain higher concentrations of these bioaccumulates. This is because bioaccumulates are stored in the muscle tissues of fish, and when a predatory fish eats another fish, it assumes the entire body burden of bioaccumulates in the consumed fish. Thus species that are high on thefood chain amass body burdens of bioaccumulates that can be ten times higher than the species they consume. This process is calledbiomagnification.[88]
Man-made disasters can cause localized hazards in seafood which may spread widely via piscine food chains. The first occurrence of widespreadmercury poisoning in humans occurred this way in the 1950s inMinamata,Japan. Wastewater from a nearby chemical factory released methylmercury that accumulated in fish which were consumed by humans. Severe mercury poisoning is now known asMinamata disease.[89][77] The 2011Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant disaster and 1947 – 1991Marshall Islands nuclear bomb testing led to dangerous radionuclide contamination of local sea life which, in the latter case, remained as of 2008.[90][77]
A widely cited study inJAMA which synthesized government andMEDLINE reports, and meta-analyses to evaluate risks from methylmercury, dioxins, and polychlorinated biphenyls to cardiovascular health and links between fish consumption and neurologic outcomes concluded that:
"The benefits of modest fish consumption (1-2 servings/wk) outweigh the risks among adults and, excepting a few selected fish species, among women of childbearing age. Avoidance of modest fish consumption due to confusion regarding risks and benefits could result in thousands of excess CHD [congenital heart disease] deaths annually and suboptimal neurodevelopment in children."[70]
Escolar is sometimes difficult to distinguish from tuna when cooked. Unlike tuna, escolar is associated withkeriorrhea and severe cramping following consumption.[91] In many restaurants, most fish labeled as tuna, white tuna, or albacore are mislabeled escolar.[92][93]
Due to the wide array of options in the seafood marketplace, seafood is far more susceptible to mislabeling than terrestrial food.[77] There are more than 1,700 species of seafood in the United States' consumer marketplace, 80 – 90% of which are imported and less than 1% of which are tested for fraud.[92] However, more recent research into seafood imports and consumption patterns among consumers in the United States suggests that 35%-38% of seafood products are of domestic origin.[94] consumption suggests Estimates of mislabelled seafood in the United States range from 33% in general up to 86% for particular species.[92]
Byzantinesupply chains, frequent bycatch, brand naming, species substitution, and inaccurate ecolabels all contribute to confusion for the consumer.[95] A 2013 study byOceana found that one third of seafood sampled from the United States was incorrectly labeled.[92]Snapper andtuna were particularly susceptible to mislabelling, and seafood substitution was the most common type of fraud. Another type of mislabelling is short-weighting, where practices such as overglasing or soaking can misleadingly increase the apparent weight of the fish.[96] For supermarket shoppers, many seafood products are unrecognisablefillets. Without sophisticatedDNA testing, there is no foolproof method to identify a fish species without their head, skin, and fins. This creates easy opportunities to substitute cheap products for expensive ones, a form of economic fraud.[97]
Beyond financial concerns, significant health risks arise from hidden pollutants and marine toxins in an already fraught marketplace. Seafood fraud has led to widespreadkeriorrhea due to mislabeled escolar, mercury poisoning from products marketed as safe for pregnant women, and hospitalisation and neurological damage due to mislabeledpufferfish.[93] For example, a 2014 study published inPLOS One found that 15% ofMSC certifiedPatagonian toothfish originated from uncertified and mercury polluted fisheries. These fishery-stock substitutions had 100% more mercury than their genuine counterparts, "vastly exceeding" limits in Canada, New Zealand, and Australia.[98]
Research into population trends of various species of seafood is pointing to a global collapse of seafood species by 2048. Such a collapse would occur due to pollution andoverfishing, threatening oceanic ecosystems, according to some researchers.[99]
A major international scientific study released in November 2006 in the journalScience found that about one-third of all fishing stocks worldwide have collapsed (with a collapse being defined as a decline to less than 10% of their maximum observed abundance), and that if current trends continue all fish stocks worldwide will collapse within fifty years.[100] In July 2009,Boris Worm ofDalhousie University, the author of the November 2006 study inScience, co-authored an update on the state of the world's fisheries with one of the original study's critics,Ray Hilborn of theUniversity of Washington at Seattle. The new study found that through good fisheries management techniques even depleted fish stocks can be revived and made commercially viable again.[101] An analysis published in August 2020 indicates that seafood could theoretically increase sustainably by 36–74% by 2050 compared to current yields and that whether or not these production potentials are realisedsustainablydepends on several factors "such as policy reforms, technological innovation, and the extent of future shifts in demand".[102][103]
TheFAO State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2004 report estimates that in 2003, of the main fish stocks or groups of resources for which assessment information is available, "approximately one-quarter wereoverexploited, depleted or recovering from depletion (16%, 7% and 1% respectively) and needed rebuilding."[104]
TheNational Fisheries Institute, a trade advocacy group representing the United States seafood industry, disagree. They claim that currently observed declines in fish populations are due to natural fluctuations and that enhanced technologies will eventually alleviate whatever impact humanity is having on oceanic life.[105]
Pescatarianism was widespread in theearly Christian Church, among both the clergy and laity.[111] In ancient and medieval times, theCatholic Church forbade the practice of eating meat, eggs and dairy products duringLent.Thomas Aquinas argued that these "afford greater pleasure as food [than fish], and greater nourishment to the human body, so that from their consumption there results in a greater surplus available for seminal matter, which when abundant becomes a great incentive to lust".[112] In the United States, the Catholic practice ofabstaining from meat on Fridays duringLent has popularised the Fridayfish fry,[113] and parishes often sponsor afish fry during Lent.[114] In predominantly Roman Catholic areas, restaurants may adjust their menus during Lent by adding seafood items to the menu.[115]
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