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Thescutum (Classical Latin:[ˈskuːt̪ʊ̃];pl.:scuta) was a type ofshield used amongItalic peoples inantiquity, most notably by the army ofancient Rome starting about the fourth century BC.[1]
The Romans adopted it when they switched from the military formation of thehoplitephalanx of the Greeks to the formation withmaniples (Latin:manipuli). In the former, the soldiers carried a round shield, which the Romans called aclipeus. In the latter, they used thescutum, which was larger. Originally, it was oblong and convex, but by the first century BC, it had developed into the rectangular, semi-cylindrical shield that is popularly associated with thescutum in modern times. This was not the only kind the Romans used; Roman shields were of varying types depending on the role of the soldier who carried it. Oval, circular and rectangular shapes were used throughout Roman history.
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The first depictions of the scutum are by theEste culture in the 8th century BC, and subsequently spread to the Italians,Illyrians, andCelts.
In the early days of ancient Rome (from the late regal period to the first part of the early republican period) Roman soldiers woreclipeus, which were like theaspides (ἀσπίδες), smaller (than the scutum) round shields used in the Greekhoplitephalanx. Thehoplites were heavy infantrymen who originally wore bronze shields and helmets. The phalanx was a compact, rectangular mass military formation. The soldiers lined up in very tight ranks in a formation that was eight lines deep. The phalanx advanced in unison, which encouraged cohesion among the troops. It formed ashield wall and a mass of spears pointing towards the enemy. Its compactness provided a thrusting force that had a great impact on the enemy and made frontal assaults against it very difficult. However, it worked only if the soldiers kept the formation tight and had the discipline needed to keep its compactness in the thick of the battle. It was a rigid form of fighting and its maneuverability was limited. The small shields provided less protection. However, their smaller size afforded more mobility. Their round shape enabled the soldiers to interlock them to hold the line together.
Sometime in the early fourth century BC, the Romans changed their military tactics from thehoplite phalanx to themanipular formation, which was much more flexible. This involved a change in military equipment. Thescutum replaced theclipeus. Some ancient writers thought that the Romans had adopted themaniples and thescutum when they fought against the Samnites in the first or secondSamnite War (343–341 BC, 327–304 BC).[2] However,Livy did not mention thescutum being a Samnite shield and wrote that the oblong shield and themanipular formation were introduced in the early fourth century BC, before the conflicts between the Romans and the Samnites.[3]Plutarch mentioned the use of the long shield in a battle that took place in 366 BC.[4] Couissin notes archaeological evidence shows that thescutum was in general use amongItalic peoples long before the Samnite Wars and argues that it was not obtained from the Samnites.[5] In some parts of Italy thescutum had been used since pre-historical times.[6]
Polybius gave a description of the early second-century scutum BC:[7]
The Roman panoply consists firstly of a shield (scutum), the convex surface of which measures 2.5 ft (76 cm) in width and 4 ft (120 cm) in length, the thickness at the rim being a palm's breadth. It is made of two planks glued together, the outer surface being then covered first with canvas and then with calfskin. Its upper and lower rims are strengthened by an iron edging that protects it from descending blows and from injury when rested on the ground. It also has an ironshield boss (umbo) fixed to it which turns aside the most formidable blows from stones, spears, swords, and other heavy missiles.
Roman rectangular scuta of later eras were smaller than Republican oval scuta and often varied in length from approximately 37 to 42 in (94 to 107 cm) tall (approximately 3 to 3.5Roman feet, covering the shoulder to top of knee), and 24 to 33 in (61 to 84 cm) wide (approximately 2 to 2.7Roman feet).[8][9][10][11][12]
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The ovalscutum is depicted on theAltar of Domitius Ahenobarbus in Rome, themonument of Aemilius Paullus atDelphi, and there is an actual example found atBatn Harit in Egypt. Gradually thescutum evolved into the rectangular (or sub-rectangular) type of the earlyRoman Empire.
By the end of the 3rd century the rectangularscutum seems to have disappeared. Fourth centuryarchaeological finds (especially from the fortress ofDura-Europos) indicate the subsequent use of oval or round shields which were not semi-cylindrical but were either dished (bowl-shaped) or flat.Roman artwork from the end of the 3rd century until theend of Antiquity show soldiers wielding oval or round shields.
The word "scutum" survived the Fall of the Western Empire and remained in the military vocabulary of theByzantine Empire. Even in the 11th century, the Byzantines called theirarmoured soldiersskutatoi (Grk. σκυτατοί), and several modernRomance languages use derivatives of the word.
Thescutum was a 10-kilogram (22 lb)[13] large rectangle curved shield made from three sheets of wood glued together and covered with canvas and leather, usually with a spindle shaped boss along the vertical length of the shield.
The best surviving example, from Dura-Europos in Syria, was 105.5 centimetres (41.5 in) high, 41 centimetres (16 in) across, and 30 centimetres (12 in) deep (due to its semicylindrical nature).[14][15] It is made from strips of wood that are 30 to 80 millimetres (1.2 to 3.1 in) wide and 1.5 to 2 millimetres (0.059 to 0.079 in) thick. They are put together in three layers, so that the total thickness of the wood layer is 4.5 to 6 millimetres (0.18 to 0.24 in). It was likely well made and extremely sturdy.
Thescutum was light enough to be held in one hand and its large height and width covered the entire wielder, making him very unlikely to be hit by missile fire and in hand-to-hand combat. The metalboss, orumbo, in the centre of thescutum also made it an auxiliary punching weapon. Its composite construction meant that early versions of thescutum could fail from a heavy cutting or piercing blow, which was experienced in the Roman campaigns against Carthage and Dacia where thefalcata andfalx could easily penetrate and rip through it. The effects of these weapons prompted design changes that made thescutum more resilient such as thicker planks and metal edges.
Theaspis, which it replaced, provided less protective coverage than thescutum but was much more durable.
According to Polybius, thescutum gave Roman soldiers an edge over theirCarthaginian enemies during thePunic Wars:[16] "Their arms also give the men both protection and confidence, which they owed to the size of the shield."
The Roman writerSuetonius recorded anecdotes of the heroiccenturion Cassius Scaeva and legionary Gaius Acilius who fought under Caesar in theBattle of Dyrrachium and the battle of Massilia, respectively:[17]
Scaeva, with one eye gone, his thigh and shoulder wounded, and his shield bored through [with arrows] in a hundred and twenty places, continued to guard the gate of a fortress put in his charge. Acilius in the sea-fight at Massilia grasped the stern of one of the enemy's ships, and when his right hand was lopped off, rivaling the famous exploit of the Greek hero Cynegirus, boarded the ship and drove the enemy before him with the boss of his shield.
The Roman writerCassius Dio in hisRoman History described Roman against Roman in theBattle of Philippi: "For a long time there was pushing of shield against shield and thrusting with the sword, as they were at first cautiously looking for a chance to wound others without being wounded themselves."
The shape of thescutum allowed packed formations of legionaries to overlap their shields to provide an effective barrier against projectiles. The most novel (and specialised, for it afforded negligible protection against other attacks) use was thetestudo (Latin for "tortoise"), which added legionaries holding shields from above to protect against descending projectiles (such as arrows, spears, or objects thrown by defenders on walls).
Dio gives an account of atestudo put to good use byMarc Antony's men while on campaign in Armenia:
One day, when they fell into an ambush and were being struck by dense showers of arrows, [the legionaries] suddenly formed thetestudo by joining their shields, and rested their left knees on the ground. The barbarians... threw aside their bows, leaped from their horses, and drawing their daggers, came up close to put an end to them. At this the Romans sprang to their feet, extended their battle-line... and confronting the foe face to face, fell upon them... and cut down great numbers.
However, thetestudo was not invincible, as Dio also gives an account of a Roman shield array being defeated byParthianknights andhorse archers at theBattle of Carrhae:
For if [the legionaries] decided to lock shields for the purpose of avoiding the arrows by the closeness of their array, the [knights] were upon them with a rush, striking down some, and at least scattering the others; and if they extended their ranks to avoid this, they would be struck with the arrows.
Cassius Dio describesscuta being used to aid an ambush:
Now Pompey was anxious to lead Orestes into conflict before he should find out the number of the Romans, for fear that when he learned it he might retreat... he kept the rest behind... in a kneeling position and covered with their shields, causing them to remain motionless, so that Orestes should not ascertain their presence until he came to close quarters.
Dio also notes the use of thescutum as a tool ofpsychological warfare during thecapture of Syracuse:
Accordingly some of the gates were opened by [legionaries], and as soon as a few others had entered, all, both inside and outside, at a given signal, raised a shout and struck their spears upon their shields, and the trumpeters blew a blast, with the result that utter panic overwhelmed the Syracusans.
In 27 BC, the emperorAugustus was awarded a golden shield by thesenate for his part in endingthe civil war and restoring the republic, according to theRes Gestae Divi Augusti. The shield, theRes Gestae says, was hung outside theCuria Julia, serving as a symbol of theprinceps "valour, clemency, justice and piety".[18]The 5th century writerVegetius added thatscuta helped in identification:
Lest the soldiers in the confusion of battle should be separated from their comrades, everycohort had its shields painted in a manner peculiar to itself. The name of each soldier was also written on his shield, together with the number of the cohort and century to which he belonged.
The nameScutum has been adopted as one of the88 modern constellations, and by UK luxury clothing makerAquascutum, which became famous in the 19th century for its waterproof menswear. Hence the name, which in Latin means "water shield".
In zoology, the termscute orscutum is used for a flat and hardened part of the anatomy of an animal, such as the shell of a turtle.[19]
The scutum, originally elliptical, had assumed a rectangular shape by the early days of the empire. An imperial scutum comprised strips of bentwood, steamed over a form into a convex curve to deflect blows and missiles.
