Thehistory of sculpture in the United States begins in the 1600s "with the modest efforts of craftsmen who adorned gravestones, Bible boxes, and various utilitarian objects with simple low-relief decorations."[1] American sculpture in its many forms, genres and guises has continuously contributed to the cultural landscape of world art into the 21st century.
There is frequently art in well-made tombstones, iron products, furniture, toys, and tools—perhaps better reflecting the character of a people than sculptures made in classical styles for social elites. One of these specific applications, the carving of wooden figureheads for ships, started in the Americas as early as 1750[2] and a century later helped launch the careers ofSamuel McIntyre and the country's first famous sculptor,William Rush (1756–1833) of Philadelphia.[3] The tradition begun then continues today in the folk sculpture style known asChainsaw carving.
In the 1830s, the first generation of notable American sculptors studied and lived in Italy, particularly inFlorence andRome, creating theNeoclassic style. At that time, Italy "provided the proper atmosphere, brought the sculptor close to the great monuments of antiquity, and provided museum collections that were available to study."[4] They also gave the artists access to the carvers of Italy who translated their clay works into marble. During this period the themes from which the subjects of sculptural works were chosen tended to be drawn from antiquity, the exceptions being portraits (whose subjects were frequently shown wearing Roman or Greek garb) or works that includedNative Americans. These artists includedHoratio Greenough (1805–1852),Hiram Powers (1805–1873),Thomas Crawford (1814–1857),Thomas Ball (1819–1911) and his son-in-lawWilliam Couper (1853–1942),Harriet Hosmer (1830–1908),Chauncey Ives (1810–1894),Randolph Rogers (1825–1892) and (somewhat later)William Henry Rinehart (1825–1874).[5]
![The Willing Captive by Chauncey Ives, 1871[6]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=http%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aThe_Willing_Captive.jpg)
American women also became active sculptors during the Italian Period despite the sexism of the age. Among the women who acquired both commissions and fame wereEdmonia Lewis,Harriet Hosmer,Anne Whitney,Vinnie Ream andEmma Stebbins).[7]
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In the decades following theCivil War American sculptors began more and more to go to Paris to study — falling in with the more naturalistic and dramatic style exemplified by the works ofJean-Baptiste Carpeaux (1827–1875) andAntoine-Louis Barye (1796–1875) and other French sculptors. Among these Americans wereAugustus Saint-Gaudens,Frederick MacMonnies, andDaniel Chester French.
American sculpture of the mid- to late 19th century was often classical and often romantic, but it showed a special bent for a dramatic, narrative, almost journalistic realism (especially appropriate for nationalistic themes) as witnessed by the frontier life depicted byFrederic Remington. This was the beginning of the style of "Western Art" that continued withAlexander Phimister Proctor and others through the 20th into the 21st century.
The naturalism of the French school, exemplified byAntoine Barye, had a great impact on the first sculptors of American wildlife. The first generation of Americananimaliers included,Edward Kemeys,Edward Potter (who occasionally worked withDaniel Chester French, producing horses for his equestrian statues),Alexander Phimister Proctor (who executed mounts forAugustus Saint-Gaudens' riders),Charles Russell,Herbert Haseltine,Frederick Roth,Albert Laessle andAnna Hyatt Huntington.[8]
The years following theAmerican Civil War saw a huge increase in the number of public monuments erected in the United States. "By far the most prevalent monument features a fully equipped Confederate soldier (the same prototype held true for Union monuments) in a realistic pose."[9]This style of monument was popularized by sculptorMartin Milmore who created one of the first ones in 1868. Milmore's own monument, authored byDaniel Chester French,Death and the Sculptor remains one of America's "noble tributes."[10]
As the century closed, the pace of monument-building quickened in the great cities of the East, especially those erected to memorialize the Civil War. Several outstanding sculptors emerged, most of them trained in the beaux-arts academies of Paris.Daniel Chester French stands out, as doFrederick William Macmonnies,Hans Schuler, andLorado Taft. This tradition continued to the 1940s withCharles Keck,Alexander Stirling Calder and others and the use of figurative sculpture in monuments persists into the 21st Century. After the middle of the 20th Century sculpture used in public monuments was increasingly abstract.
The decades following theSecond World War saw a large number ofmonuments and memorials dedicated to the victims of theHolocaust.
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There are at least three major mountain sculptures in the United States. These areMount Rushmore,Stone Mountain, andCrazy Horse Memorial.Gutzon Borglum, an accomplished sculptor with such pieces asSeated Lincoln and a variety of other public monuments, oversaw the sculpture of Mount Rushmore in theBlack Hills in South Dakota. The monument was finished after his death by his son Lincoln Borglum.
Gutzon Borglum also was responsible for starting the Stone Mountain project in Georgia but had a falling-out with its overseers. The monument was then taken up byAugustus Lukeman, who died during its carving in 1935. The memorial was finished byWalker Hancock and was considered complete in 1972.
The Crazy Horse Memorial in the Black Hills of South Dakota depicts the Oglala Lakota warriorCrazy Horse riding a horse and pointing into the distance. It was begun in 1948 by sculptorKorczak Ziolkowski and continued after his death by his wife,Ruth Ziolkowski, who took over the helm of the project, and several of their children.[11] The face was dedicated in 1998.
Public buildings of the last quarter of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century provided an architectural setting for sculpture, especially in relief.Karl Bitter,Lee Lawrie,Adolph Alexander Weinman,C. Paul Jennewein,Rene Paul Chambellan,Corrado Parducci, and many others worked in the simple, sometimes narrative style that fit these spaces. Much of this work was created by anonymous sculptors and carvers.
As the century began, many young European sculptors migrated to the free, booming economy across the Atlantic, and European trained sculptors account for much of the great work created before 1950. These includeElie Nadelman,Albin Polasek,Gaston Lachaise andCarl Milles.
Several notable American sculptors joined in the revitalization of the classical tradition at this time, most notablyPaul Manship, who "discovered" archaic Greek sculpture while studying on a scholarship in Rome.C. Paul Jennewein andEdward McCartan were also leaders in this direction who fit easily with theart-deco tastes of the 1920s.In the 1930s and 1940s, the ideologies that rent European politics were reflected in associations of American sculptors. On the right was the group, mostly native-born, mostly old-school classical, mostly modelers of clay, who founded theNational Sculpture Society, led by the heiress and sculptorAnna Hyatt Huntington and preserved in the sculpture park that she endowed —Brookgreen Gardens in South Carolina.
On the left, often immigrant, often expressionistic, was the New York-basedSculptors Guild, with an emphasis on more current themes anddirect carving in wood or stone. One of its better known members wasWilliam Zorach.
With the Harlem Renaissance, an African-American sculpture genre emerged.Richmond Barthé was an outstanding example.Augusta Savage was a sculptor and teacher.Richard Hunt was the first to have a retrospective show at theMuseum of Modern Art in 1971.[12] Other contemporary sculptors includeElizabeth Catlett,Martin Puryear,Jerry Harris, andThaddeus Mosley.
Some Americans, such asIsamu Noguchi, had already moved from figurative to nonfigurative design, but after 1950, the entire American art world took a dramatic turn away from the former tradition, and America led the rest of the world into a more iconoclastic and theoretical approach to modernism.
Within the next ten years, traditional sculpture education would almost completely be replaced by aBauhaus-influenced concern for abstract design. To accompany the triumph of abstract expressionist painting, heroes of abstract sculpture such asDavid Smith emerged, and many new materials were explored for sculptural expression.Louise Nevelson pioneered the emerging genre ofenvironmental sculpture.
However, during this period a group of American sculptors persisted in creating works in their pre-war, modern/classical-style. These includeMilton Horn,Donal Hord,Charles Umlauf,Joseph Erhardy, andJohn Henry Waddell.
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The figure returned in the 1960s, but without the beaux-arts figurative tradition, sometimes even as life-casts like thoseGeorge Segal made with plaster.Jim Gary created life-sized figures composed of metal washers and hardware almost invisibly welded together, as well as those ofstained glass and even used automobile parts and tools in his sculptures.
Concerns for the qualities of forms and design continued — but usually without representing a human figure. Minimalist sculpture by artists such asRichard Serra andNorman Carlberg often replaced the figure in public settings. Sculpture of the late 20th century was mostly a playful exploration of the boundaries of what could be called art.
TheMinimalist style reduces sculpture to its most essential and fundamental features. Minimalists includeTony Smith,Donald Judd,Robert Morris,Larry Bell,Anne Truitt, andDan Flavin;
Site specific andenvironmental art works are represented by artists:Donald Judd,Dennis Oppenheim,Richard Serra,Robert Irwin,George Rickey, andChristo and Jeanne-Claude led contemporary abstract sculpture in new directions. Artists createdenvironmental sculpture on expansive sites in the 'land art in the American West' group of projects. Theseland art or 'earth art' environmental scale sculpture works exemplified by artists such asRobert Smithson,Michael Heizer,James Turrell (Roden Crater) and othersTheland art (earth art) environmental scale sculpture works byRobert Smithson,Michael Heizer,James Turrell and others.
Artists Bill Bollinger,Eva Hesse,Sol LeWitt,Jackie Winsor,Keith Sonnier,Bruce Nauman, andLucas Samaras, among others were pioneers ofPostminimalist sculpture. The later works ofRobert Graham continued evolving, often inpublic art settings, into the 21st century.
Also during the 1960s and 1970s artists as diverse as Stephen Antonakis,Chryssa,Walter De Maria,Dan Flavin,Robert Smithson,Dennis Oppenheim,Robert Irwin,Claes Oldenburg,George Segal,Edward Kienholz,Duane Hanson, andJohn DeAndrea explored abstraction, imagery and figuration throughLight sculpture,Land art, andinstallation art in new ways.
Other kinds of sculpture grew in importance, some evolving from the work of leaders in ironwork during the early 1900s who includedSamuel Yellin. A center for the western style of American sculpture developed atLoveland, Colorado, and many studios, magazines, and even a museum (theNational Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum in Oklahoma City) pursued this interest. A neo-Victorian style emerged, pioneered by the sculptorFrederick Hart.
The art-doll and ceramic sculpture communities also grew in numbers and importance in the late 20th century, while the entertainment industry required large-scale, spectacular (sometimes monstrous or cartoon-like) sculpture for movie sets, theme parks, casinos, and athletic stadiums. Industrial product design, especially automobiles, should not be ignored. An example is Randolph Parducci's (brother ofCorrado Parducci) sculptures created for the famous chariot race scene in the filmBen Hur.
United States courts have consistently held that sculptors maintain anintellectual property right to sculptures and are entitled to compensation if photographs are used for commercial purposes. The rights apply even if the sculptor no longer owns the sculpture or the sculpture is not even in a public space. The sculptor, however, could sign away those rights. Some other countries, such as Germany, give permission to take the photographs via the concept ofPanoramafreiheit, orFreedom of Panorama.
On February 25, 2010, theUnited States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit ruled 2-1 that theFrank Gaylord, sculptor of theKorean War Veterans Memorial, was entitled to compensation because an image of it was used on a 37 centU. S. postage stamp and he had not signed away hisintellectual property rights. The appeals court rejected arguments that the photo wastransformative.[13]
In 2002, amateur photographer and retired Marine John All was paid $1,500 to use one of his photographs of the memorial on a snowy day for the stamp[14] which sold more than $17 million worth of stamps. In 2006, sculptor Frank Gaylord enlistedFish & Richardson to make apro bono claim that theU. S. Postal Service had violated his intellectual property rights to the sculpture and thus he should have been compensated. The Postal Service argued that Gaylord was not the sole sculptor (saying he had received advice from federal sources – who recommended that the uniforms appear more in the wind) and also that the sculpture was actuallyarchitecture. Gaylord won all of his arguments in the lower court except for one...the court ruled the photo wasfair use and thus he was not entitled to compensation. Gaylord appealed the fair use ruling and won the case on appeal.[13] On April 22, 2011, TheUS Court of Claims awarded Gaylord $5,000.[15]
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