Science and technology in Italy has a long presence, from theRoman era and theRenaissance. Through the centuries, it has made many significant inventions and discoveries in biology, physics, chemistry, mathematics, astronomy, and other sciences. In 2019,Italy was the world's sixth-highest producer ofscientific articles, publishing more than 155,000 documents.^[6] From 1996 to 2000, it published two million.^[7] It ranked 26th in theGlobal Innovation Index for 2024.^[8]

As early as the 1st century AD,Rome had become one of the biggest and most advanced cities in the world. Theancient Romans invented new technologies to improve the city's sanitation systems, roads, and buildings.^[9][10] They developed a system ofaqueducts that piped freshwater into the city, and they built sewers that removed the city's waste. The wealthiest Romans lived in large houses with gardens. Most of the population lived in apartment buildings made of stone, concrete, or limestone. The Romans developed new techniques and used materials such as volcanic soil fromPozzuoli, a village near Naples, to make their cement harder and stronger.^[11] This concrete allowed them to build large apartment buildings calledinsulae.

Italy had a scientific "golden age" during the Renaissance.Leonardo da Vinci, was trained to be a painter, but his interests and achievements spread into an astonishing variety of fields that are now considered scientific specialties. He conceived ideas vastly ahead of his time. Notably, he invented concepts for thehelicopter, an armed fighting vehicle, the use of concentrated solar power, the calculator, a rudimentary theory ofplate tectonics, the double hull, and many others, using inspiration from Chinese ideas.^[12] In addition, he greatly advanced the fields of knowledge in anatomy, astronomy, civil engineering, optics, and hydrodynamics.

The scientistGalileo Galilei is called the first modern scientist.^[13] His work constitutes a significant break from that ofAristotle and medieval philosophers and scientists (who were then referred to as "natural philosophers"). Galileo's achievements include improvements to the telescope, various astronomical observations, and initial formulation of the first and second laws of motion. Galileo was suppressed by the Catholic Church, but was a founder of modern science.^[14]Other astronomers, such asGiovanni Domenico Cassini andGiovanni Schiaparelli, made discoveries about theSolar System. In mathematics,Joseph Louis Lagrange was active before leaving Italy.Giuseppe Peano,Lagrange,Fibonacci, andGerolamo Cardano, whoseArs Magna is generally recognized as the first modern treatment on mathematics, made fundamental advances to the field.^[15]Luca Pacioli established accounting principles. PhysicistEnrico Fermi, a Nobel prize laureate, led the team in Chicago that developed thefirst nuclear reactor. Fermi helped design theatomic bomb as part of theManhattan Project.^[16] Italian physicistsEmilio Segrè, who discovered the elementstechnetium andastatine, and theantiproton;Bruno Rossi, a pioneer in Cosmic Rays and X-ray astronomy; and other physicists were forced to leave Italy in the 1930s due toFascist laws against Jews.^[17]

Other physicists includeAmedeo Avogadro (contributions tomolecular theory),Evangelista Torricelli (inventor of thebarometer),Alessandro Volta (inventor of theelectric battery),Guglielmo Marconi (inventor of radio),Galileo Ferraris andAntonio Pacinotti (pioneers of the induction motor),Alessandro Cruto (pioneer of the light bulb), andInnocenzo Manzetti (pioneer of automatons and robotics),Ettore Majorana (discoveredMajorana fermions),Carlo Rubbia (1984 Nobel Prize in physics), andAntonio Meucci (developing voice-communication device sometimes credited as the first telephone).^[18] In 1964,Pier Giorgio Perotto designed one of the first desktopprogrammable calculators, theProgramma 101.^[19]

In biology,Francesco Redi was the first to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies.Marcello Malpighi foundedmicroscopic anatomy; his studentAntonio Maria Valsalva became famous for his research focused on the anatomy of the ears, and Valvasia pupilGiovanni Battista Morgagni is the anatomist generally regarded as the father of modernanatomical pathology.Lazzaro Spallanzani conducted research in bodily functions, animal reproduction, and cellular theory.Camillo Golgi, whose many achievements include the discovery of theGolgi complex.Rita Levi-Montalcini, who discovered thenerve growth factor, was awarded the 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine).Giulio Natta received the 1963 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on highpolymers.Giuseppe Occhialini received the 1979Wolf Prize in Physics for the discovery of thepion or pi-meson decay in 1947.Ennio De Giorgi, aWolf Prize in Mathematics recipient in 1990, solvedBernstein's problem aboutminimal surfaces and the19th Hilbert problem on the regularity of solutions ofelliptic partial differential equations.^[20]

The first internal combustion engine was invented byEugenio Barsanti andFelice Matteucci, theBarsanti-Matteucci engine, in 1852.^[21][22] It was fueled by a mix of air and hydrogen. The first gasoline internal combustion engine motor vehicle was invented byEnrico Bernardi in 1884.^[23] The first pc (personal computer), theOlivetti P6040 and theP6060 was invented byOlivetti engineerPier Giorgio Perotto in 1975.^[24]

TheAccademia dei Lincei (Italian pronunciation:[akkaˈdɛːmjadeilinˈtʃɛi]; literally the "Academy of the Lynx-Eyed", but anglicised as theLincean Academy) is one of the oldest and most prestigious European scientific institutions,^[25] located at thePalazzo Corsini on theVia della Lungara inRome, Italy.

Founded in thePapal States in 1603 byFederico Cesi, the academy was named after thelynx, an animal whose sharp vision symbolizes the observational prowess that science requires.Galileo Galilei was the intellectual centre of the academy and adopted "Galileo Galilei Linceo" as his signature. "The Lincei did not long survive the death in 1630 of Cesi, its founder and patron",^[26] and "disappeared in 1651".^[27]

During the nineteenth century, it was revived, first in the Vatican and later in the nation of Italy. Thus thePontifical Academy of Sciences, established in 1936, claims this heritage as theAccademia Pontificia dei Nuovi Lincei ("Pontifical Academy of the New Lynxes"), founded in 1847, descending from the first two incarnations of the academy. Similarly, a lynx-eyed academy of the 1870s became the national academy of Italy, encompassing both literature and science among its concerns.^[28]

TheNational Research Council (Italian:Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, CNR) is the main Italian public research body. Supervised by the Ministry of university and Research,^[31] has the task of carrying out, promoting, disseminating, transferring and enhancing scientific and technological research activities in the main sectors of knowledge development and their applications, promoting scientific progress, technological, economic and social.^[32] According to thescientific journalNature, in 2018 the CNR ranked 10th among the most innovative public research bodies in the world for the number of scientific articles published in about 80 journals monitored by the same journal.^[33]

Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso (LNGS) is the largest underground research center in the world.^[34] Situated belowGran Sasso mountain in Italy, it is well known forparticle physics research by theINFN.^[35] In addition to a surface portion of the laboratory, there are extensive underground facilities beneath the mountain.^[36] The nearest towns areL'Aquila andTeramo.^[37] The facility is located about 120 km from Rome.^[37] The primary mission of the laboratory is to host experiments that require a low background environment in the fields ofastroparticle physics andnuclear astrophysics and other disciplines that can profit of its characteristics and of its infrastructures.^[37] The LNGS is, like the three otherEuropean underground astroparticle laboratories (Laboratoire Souterrain de Modane,Laboratorio subterráneo de Canfranc, andBoulby Underground Laboratory), a member of the coordinating groupILIAS.^[38]

ELETTRA,Eurac Research,ESA Centre for Earth Observation,Institute for Scientific Interchange,International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology,Centre for Maritime Research and Experimentation and theInternational Centre for Theoretical Physics conduct basic research.Trieste has the highest percentage of researchers in Europe in relation to the population.^[39] Italy was ranked 26th in theGlobal Innovation Index in 2023.^[40] The country and especially theItalian Institute of Technology have produced some ingenioushumanoid robots likeiCub.

CINECA is a non-profit consortium, made up of 69 Italian universities, 27 national public research centres, the Italian Ministry of Universities and Research (MUR) and the Italian Ministry of Education (MI), and was established in 1969 inCasalecchio di Reno,Bologna.

It is the most powerful supercomputing centre for scientific research inItaly,^[41] as stated in theTOP500 list of the most powerful supercomputers in the world: Marconi100, is ranked at the 18th position of the list as of November 2021, with about 30 P/FLOPS.

The consortium's institutional mission is to support the Italian scientific community throughsupercomputing andscientific visualisation tools. Since the end of the 1980s, Cineca has broadened the scope of its mission by embracing other IT sectors, developing management and administrative services for universities and designing ICT systems for the exchange of information between the MIUR and the Italian national academic system. The consortium is also strongly committed to transfer technology to many categories of users, from public administration to the private enterprises.

Today it merges the specificities and competences of the other two Italian high performance computing consortia,CILEA and Caspur: as a unique reference point for technology innovation in Italy, with its services Cineca supports the whole higher education and research system.

Cineca takes part in several research projects funded by theEuropean Union for the promotion and development of IT technologies (grid computing,bioinformatic,digital content, the promotion of transnational access to European supercomputing centres, etc.).

TheItalian Space Agency (Italian:Agenzia Spaziale Italiana;ASI) is a government agency established in 1988 to fund, regulate and coordinatespace exploration activities inItaly.^[42][43] The agency cooperates with numerous national and international entities who are active in aerospace research and technology.^[43]

Nationally, ASI is responsible for both drafting the National Aerospace Plan and ensuring it is carried out. To do this the agency operates as the owner/coordinator of a number of Italian space research agencies and assets such asCIRA as well as organising the calls and opportunities process for Italian industrial contractors on spaceflight projects. Internationally, the ASI provides Italy's delegation to the Council of theEuropean Space Agency and to its subordinate bodies as well as representing the country's interests in foreign collaborations.

ASI's main headquarters are located inRome, Italy,^[44] and the agency also has direct control over two operational centres: theCentre for Space Geodesy (CGS) located inMatera in Italy, and its own spaceport, theBroglio Space Centre (formerly theSan Marco Equatorial Range) on the coastal sublittoral ofKenya, currently used only as a communications ground station.^[45] One further balloon launch base located inTrapani was permanently closed in 2010.^[46] In 2020, ASI's annual revenues budget was approximately €2.0 billion^[47][48] and it directly employed around 200 workers.^[43]

The threeSpace ShuttleMulti-Purpose Logistics Module cargo containersLeonardo,Raffaello andDonatello, weremanufactured at theCannes Mandelieu Space Center inTurin,Italy by Alcatel Alenia Space, nowThales Alenia Space.^[49] They provide a key function in storing equipment and parts for transfer to theInternational Space Station.^[50] A number of ISS modules have also been made in Italy. As part of ESA's contribution to the costs of the International Space Station, Alcatel Alenia Space manufacturedTranquility,Harmony as well as theCupola observation deck for NASA.^[51] ESA'sColumbus module, Western Europe's primary scientific lab on board the ISS, was again built in Turin based on Italy's previous experience in space station module construction.^[52]

On 15 December 1964, the first Italiansatellite was launched, theSan Marco 1,^[53] while on 31 July 1992,Franco Malerba, following theSTS-46 space mission, was the first Italian to go into space.^[54] On 23 November 2014Samantha Cristoforetti, following theExpedition 42 mission, was the first Italian woman to go into space.^[55]

There are numerousscience museums such as theMuseo Nazionale Scienza e Tecnologia Leonardo da Vinci inMilan, theNatural History Museum in Milan, theCittà della Scienza inNaples, theInstitute and Museum of the History of Science inFlorence, thePlanetario di Milano in Milan, theMuseo di Storia Naturale di Firenze in Florence and theLa Specola in Florence.

Other Italian science museums are theMuseo Civico di Zoologia inRome, theCivico Museo di Storia Naturale di Trieste, theFaraggiana Ferrandi Natural History Museum inNovara, theFederico Eusebio Civic Museum of Archaeology and Natural Sciences inAlba, theMuseo Civico di Storia Naturale Giacomo Doria inGenoa and theMuseo del fiore inAcquapendente.

Other museums are theMuseo Civico Scienze Naturali Enrico Caffi inBergamo, theMuseo di storia naturale della Maremma inGrosseto, theMuseo di Storia Naturale di Venezia in Venice, theNatural History Museum of the University of Pisa inPisa, theMuseum Gherdëina inOrtisei, theNatural History Museum inPavia, theTurin Museum of Natural History and theZoological Museum of Naples.

There are numeroustechnology parks in Italy such as the Science and Technology Parks Kilometro Rosso (Bergamo), theAREA Science Park (Trieste), The VEGA-Venice Gateway for Science and Technology (Venice), the Toscana Life Sciences (Siena), theTechnology Park of Lodi Cluster (Lodi),Bioindustry Park Silvano Fumero (Canavese) and the Technology Park of Navacchio (Pisa).^[56]

Other technology parks in the Northern Italy are the "NOI Techpark Südtirol-Alto Adige" technology park (Bolzano), the "Techno Innovation Park South Tyrol" (Bolzano), the "Trentino Sviluppo" technology park (Rovereto), the "ComoNExT - Innovation Hub" science and technology park (Lomazzo), the "Servitec" science and technology park (Dalmine), the Technological pole (Pavia), the Cremona Technological Pole (Cremona), the CSMT Innovative Contamination Hub (Brescia), the "Bioindustry Park Silvano Fumero" science and technology park (Colleretto Giacosa), the "Tecnogranda" science and technology park (Dronero), the Novara Development Foundation (Novara), the "Environment Park" technology park (Turin), the Science and technology park in the Scrivia Valley (Tortona), the "Galileo" Science and Technology Park (Padua), the "Star" science park (Verona), the Technological center (Pordenone), the "Luigi Danieli" Science and Technology Park (Udine), the "Great Campus" science and technology park (Genoa) and the Torricelli Park of Arts and Science Faventia (Ravenna).^{[57][58][59][60]}

Other technology parks in the Central and the Southern Italy are the Magona Technological Pole Consortium (Cecina), the Technological and archaeological park of the Grosseto Metalliferous Hills in theprovince of Grosseto, the Lucca technology center (Lucca), the Technological Pole (Navacchio), the "3A-PTA" technology park (Todi), the "Hub21" scientific, technological and cultural center (Ascoli Piceno), the "Pa.L.Mer" technology park (Latina), the Roman scientific pole (Rome), the "Tecnopolo" technological hub (Rome), the Idis-City of Science Foundation (Naples), the TechNapoli" technology park (Pozzuoli), the Science and Technology Park (Salerno), the "Tecnopolis" science and technology park (Valenzano), the "CALPARK" science and technology park (Rende), the "Magna Graecia" scientific, the technological and multisectoral park (Crotone), the Science and technology park of Sicily (Catania) and the Technology park of Sardinia (Pula).^{[57][58][59][60]}

Italian inventions and discoveries are objects, processes or techniques invented, innovated or discovered, partially or entirely, byItalians.

Italian people – living in theItalic peninsula or abroad – have been throughout history^[61] the source of importantinventions andinnovations in the fields ofwriting,^[62][63]calendar,^[64]mechanical^[65] andcivil engineering,^{[66][67][68][69]}musical notation,^[70]celestial observation,^[71]perspective,^[72]warfare,^{[73][74][75][76]} long distancecommunication,^[77][78][79]storage^[80] andproduction^[81][82] ofenergy,modern medicine,^[83]polymerization^[84][85] andinformation technology.^[86][87]

Italians also contributed in theorizingcivil law,^[88][89]scientific method (particularly in the fields ofphysics andastronomy),^[90]double-entry bookkeeping,^[91] mathematicalalgebra^[92] andanalysis,^[93][94]classical andcelestial mechanics.^[95][96] Often, thingsdiscovered for the first time are also called inventions and in many cases, there is no clear line between the two.

• 
  Leonardo Fibonacci, referred to as "the most talented Western mathematician of the Middle Ages"^[97]
• 
  Francesco Redi, the founder of experimental biology, is referred to as the father of modernparasitology.^[98][99]
• 
  Evangelista Torricelli, the inventor ofbarometer, made various advances inoptics and work on themethod of indivisibles.
• 
  Alessandro Volta, the inventor of theelectrical battery and discover of methane, and did substantial work with electric currents
• 
  Antonio Meucci developed a voice-communication apparatus that several sources credit as the first telephone^[100]
• 
  Guglielmo Marconi, inventor of theradio and the father of thewireless communication^[101][102]
• 
  Enrico Fermi, creator of the world's firstnuclear reactor.^[103][16]

Through the centuries, Italy has fostered the scientific community that produced many major discoveries in physics and the other sciences. During theRenaissance Italian polymaths such asLeonardo da Vinci (1452–1519),Michelangelo (1475–1564) andLeon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) made contributions in a variety of fields, including biology, architecture, and engineering.Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), anastronomer,physicist,engineer, andpolymath, played a major role in theScientific Revolution. He is considered the "father" ofobservational astronomy,^[2] modern physics,^[3][104] thescientific method,^[4]modern science.^[5]

Other astronomers such asGiovanni Domenico Cassini (1625–1712) andGiovanni Schiaparelli (1835–1910) made discoveries about theSolar System. In mathematics,Joseph Louis Lagrange (born Giuseppe Lodovico Lagrangia, 1736–1813) was active before leaving Italy.Fibonacci (c. 1170 – c. 1250), andGerolamo Cardano (1501–1576) made fundamental advances in mathematics.^[105]Luca Pacioli establishedaccounting to the world. PhysicistEnrico Fermi (1901–1954), a Nobel prize laureate, led the team in Chicago that developed thefirst nuclear reactor. He is considered the "architect of thenuclear age"^[103] and the "architect of theatomic bomb".^[16] He,Emilio G. Segrè (1905–1989) who discovered the elementstechnetium andastatine, and theantiproton),Bruno Rossi (1905–1993) a pioneer in Cosmic Rays and X-ray astronomy) and a number of Italian physicists were forced to leave Italy in the 1930s byFascist laws against Jews.^[106]

Other prominent physicists includeAmedeo Avogadro (most noted for his contributions tomolecular theory, in particular theAvogadro's law and theAvogadro constant),Evangelista Torricelli (inventor ofbarometer),Alessandro Volta (inventor ofelectric battery),Guglielmo Marconi (inventor ofradio),Galileo Ferraris andAntonio Pacinotti, pioneers of the induction motor,Alessandro Cruto, pioneer of light bulb andInnocenzo Manzetti, eclectic pioneer of auto and robotics,Ettore Majorana (who discovered theMajorana fermions),Carlo Rubbia (1984 Nobel Prize in Physics for work leading to the discovery of theW and Z particles atCERN).Antonio Meucci is known for developing a voice-communication device which is often credited as the firsttelephone.^[107][108]

Pier Giorgio Perotto in 1964 designed one of the first desktopprogrammable calculators, theProgramma 101.^{[109][110][111]} In biology,Francesco Redi has been the first to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies and he described 180 parasites in details andMarcello Malpighi foundedmicroscopic anatomy,Lazzaro Spallanzani conducted research in bodily functions, animal reproduction, and cellular theory,Camillo Golgi, whose many achievements include the discovery of theGolgi complex, paved the way to the acceptance of theNeuron doctrine,Rita Levi-Montalcini discovered thenerve growth factor (awarded 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine). In chemistry,Giulio Natta received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1963 for his work on highpolymers.Giuseppe Occhialini received theWolf Prize in Physics for the discovery of thepion or pi-meson decay in 1947.Ennio De Giorgi, aWolf Prize in Mathematics recipient in 1990, solvedBernstein's problem aboutminimal surfaces and the19th Hilbert problem on the regularity of solutions ofElliptic partial differential equations.^[112]

Swiss Nobel laureates

Year	Image	Laureate	Born	Died	Field	Rationale
1906		Camillo Golgi	7 July 1843 inCorteno	21 January 1926 inPavia	Physiology or Medicine	"in recognition of their work on the structure of thenervous system"[113] prize shared withSantiago Ramón y Cajal
1909		Guglielmo Marconi	25 April 1874 inBologna	20 July 1937 inRome	Physics	"in recognition of their contributions to the development ofwireless telegraphy"[114] prize shared withKarl Ferdinand Braun
1938		Enrico Fermi	29 September 1901 inRome since 1944 also American citizen[115]	28 November 1954 inChicago,USA	Physics	"for his demonstrations of the existence of newradioactive elements produced byneutron irradiation, and for his related discovery ofnuclear reactions brought about byslow neutrons"[116]
1957		Daniel Bovet	23 March 1907 inNeuchâtel,Switzerland acquired Italian citizenship in 1947 or 1948[117]	8 April 1992 inRome	Physiology or Medicine	"for his discoveries relating to synthetic compounds that inhibit the action of certain body substances, and especially their action on thevascular system and theskeletal muscles"[118]
1959		Emilio Segrè	1 February 1905 inTivoli since 1944 also American citizen[119]	22 April 1989 inLafayette,USA	Physics	"for their discovery of theantiproton"[120] prize shared withOwen Chamberlain
1963		Giulio Natta	26 February 1903 inImperia	2 May 1979 inBergamo	Chemistry	"for their discoveries in the field of the chemistry and technology of highpolymers"[121] prize shared withKarl Ziegler
1969		Salvador Luria	13 August 1912 inTurin since 1947 also American citizen[122]	6 February 1991 inLexington,USA	Physiology or Medicine	"for their discoveries concerning thereplication mechanism and the genetic structure ofviruses"[123] prize shared withMax Delbrück andAlfred D. Hershey
1975		Renato Dulbecco	22 February 1914 inCatanzaro since 1953 also American citizen[124]	19 February 2012 inLa Jolla,USA	Physiology or Medicine	"for their discoveries concerning the interaction betweentumour viruses and the genetic material of thecell"[125] prize shared withDavid Baltimore andHoward Martin Temin
1984		Carlo Rubbia	31 March 1934 inGorizia	—	Physics	"for their decisive contributions tothe large project, which led to the discovery of thefield particles W and Z, communicators ofweak interaction"[126] prize shared withSimon van der Meer
1986		Rita Levi-Montalcini	22 April 1909 inTurin	30 December 2012 inRome	Physiology or Medicine	"for their discoveries ofgrowth factors"[127] prize shared withStanley Cohen
2002		Riccardo Giacconi	6 October 1931 inGenoa since 1960 also American citizen[128]	16 December 2018 inLa Jolla	Physics	"for pioneering contributions toastrophysics, which have led to the discovery ofcosmic X-ray sources"[129] prize shared withRaymond Davis Jr. andMasatoshi Koshiba
2007		Mario Capecchi	6 October 1937 inVerona later naturalized American[130]	—	Physiology or Medicine	"for their discoveries of principles for introducing specificgene modifications in mice by the use ofembryonic stem cells"[131] prize shared withMartin J. Evans andOliver Smithies
2021		Giorgio Parisi	4 August 1948 inRome	—	Physics	"for the discovery of the interplay of disorder andfluctuations inphysical systems from atomic to planetary scales"[132] prize shared withSyukuro Manabe andKlaus Hasselmann

• Internet in Italy
• Telecommunications in Italy
• List of Italian inventions
• Roman technology

• Cocco, Sean.Watching Vesuvius: A History of Science and Culture in Early Modern Italy (2012)
• Cocco, Sean. "Locating the Natural Sciences in Early Modern Naples," ch 20 inA Companion to Early Modern Naples (2013) pp: 453+.
• Galdabini, Silvana, and Giuseppe Giuliani. "Physics in Italy between 1900 and 1940: The universities, physicists, funds, and research."Historical studies in the physical and biological sciences (1988): 115–136.in JSTOR
• Miele, Aldo, ed.Gli Scienziati Italiani dall'Inizio del Medio Eno ai Nostri Giorni. Vol. 1, Part 1 (Nardecchia, 1921)
  • Archibald, R. C. (April 1921)."Review:Gli Scienziati Italiani dall'Inizio del Medio Eno ai Nostri Giorni, ed. by Aldo Miele".The American Mathematical Monthly.28:173–174.doi:10.2307/2972288.JSTOR 2972288.
• Orlando, Lucia. "Physics in the 1930s: Jewish Physicists' Contribution to the Realization of the" New Tasks" of Physics in Italy."Historical studies in the physical and biological sciences (1998): 141-181.in JSTOR
• Pancaldi, Giuliano. "Vito volterra: Cosmopolitan ideals and nationality in the Italian scientific community between the belle époque and the first world war."Minerva (1993) 31#1 pp: 21–37.
• Schmitt, Charles B.Science in the Italian universities in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries (Macmillan, 1975)
• Turchetti, Simone.The Pontecorvo Affair: A Cold War Defection and Nuclear Physics (University of Chicago Press, 2012)

• SCI-BYTES - WHAT'S NEW IN RESEARCH: 2008, Science in Italy, 2003–07.sciencewatch.com. Web. 29 Sep. 2011.

• Science and technology in Italy

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