In addition to these core schools, students in a given country may also attend schools before and after primary (elementary in the U.S.) and secondary (middle school in the U.S.) education.[3]Kindergarten orpreschool provide some schooling to very young children (typically ages 3–5). University,vocational school,college, orseminary may be available after secondary school. A school may be dedicated to one particular field, such as a school of economics or dance.Alternative schools may provide nontraditional curriculum and methods.
Non-government schools, also known asprivate schools,[4] may be required when the government does not supply adequate or specific educational needs. Other private schools can also be religious, such asChristian schools,gurukula (Hindu schools),madrasa (Arabic schools),hawzas (Shi'i Muslim schools),yeshivas (Jewish schools), and others; or schools that have a higher standard of education or seek to foster other personal achievements. Schools for adults include institutions ofcorporate training,military education and training, andbusiness schools.
Critics of school often accuse the school system of failing to adequately prepare students for their future lives,[5] of encouraging certain temperaments while inhibiting others,[6] of prescribing students exactly what to do, how, when, where and with whom, which would suppresscreativity,[7] and of usingextrinsic measures such asgrades andhomework, which would inhibit children's naturalcuriosity and desire to learn.[8]
Inhomeschooling anddistance education, teaching and learning take place independent from the institution of school or in avirtual school outside a traditional school building, respectively. Schools are organized in several differentorganizational models, including departmental, small learning communities, academies, integrated, and schools-within-a-school.
Etymology
The wordschool derives fromGreekσχολή(scholē), originally meaning "leisure" and also "that in which leisure is employed", but later "a group to whom lectures were given, school".[9][10][11]
The concept of grouping students together in a centralized location for learning has existed sinceClassical antiquity. Formal schools have existed at least sinceancient Greece (seeAcademy),ancient Rome (seeEducation in Ancient Rome)ancient India (seeGurukul), andancient China (seeHistory of education in China). TheByzantine Empire had an established schooling system beginning at the primary level. According toTraditions and Encounters, the founding of the primary education system began in 425 AD and "... military personnel usually had at least a primary education ...". The sometimes efficient and often large government of the Empire meant that educated citizens were a must. Although Byzantium lost much of the grandeur of Roman culture and extravagance in the process of surviving, the Empire emphasized efficiency in its war manuals. The Byzantine education system continued until the empire's collapse in 1453 AD.[12]
In Europe, universities emerged during the 12th century; here,scholasticism was an important tool, and the academicians were calledschoolmen. During theMiddle Ages and much of theEarly Modern period, the main purpose of schools (as opposed to universities) was to teach theLatin language. This led to the termgrammar school, which in the United States informally refers to a primary school, but in the United Kingdom means a school that selects entrants based on ability or aptitude. The school curriculum has gradually broadened to include literacy in the vernacular language and technical, artistic, scientific, and practical subjects.
Obligatory school attendance became common in parts of Europe during the 18th century. InDenmark-Norway, this was introduced as early as in 1739–1741, the primary end being to increase the literacy of thealmue, i.e., the "regular people".[13] Many of the earlier public schools in the United States and elsewhere wereone-room schools where a single teacher taught seven grades of boys and girls in the same classroom. Beginning in the 1920s, one-room schools were consolidated into multiple classroom facilities with transportation increasingly provided bykid hacks andschool buses.
Islam was another culture that developed a school system in the modern sense of the word. Emphasis was put on knowledge, which required a systematic way of teaching and spreading knowledge and purpose-built structures. At first,mosques combined religious performance and learning activities. However, by the 9th century, themadrassa was introduced, a school that was built independently from the mosque, such asal-Qarawiyyin, founded in 859 CE. They were also the first to make theMadrassa system a public domain underCaliph's control.
Under theOttomans, the towns ofBursa andEdirne became the main centers of learning. The Ottoman system ofKülliye, a building complex containing a mosque, a hospital, madrassa, and public kitchen and dining areas, revolutionized the education system, making learning accessible to a broader public through its free meals, health care, and sometimes free accommodation.
Regional terms
The term "school" varies by country, as do the names of the various levels of education within the country.
In the United Kingdom, most schools are publicly funded and known asstate schools or maintained schools in which tuition is provided for free.[15] There are also private schools orprivate schools that charge fees. Some of the most selective and expensive private schools are known aspublic schools, a usage that can be confusing to speakers ofNorth American English. In North American usage, apublic school is publicly funded or run.
In much of theCommonwealth of Nations, including Australia, New Zealand, India,Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, South Africa, Kenya, and Tanzania, the termschool refers primarily to pre-university institutions.[16]
In ancient India, schools were in the form ofGurukuls. Gurukuls were traditionalHindu residential learning schools, typically the teacher's house or a monastery. Schools today are commonly known by the Sanskrit termsVidyashram,Vidyalayam,VidyaMandir,Vidya Bhavan in India.[17] Insouthern languages, it is known asPallikoodam orPaadaSaalai. During the Mughal rule,Madrasahs were introduced in India to educate the children of Muslim parents. British records show that indigenous education was widespread in the 18th century, with a school for every temple, mosque, or village in most regions. The subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science, and Religion.[18]
Under British rule, Christian missionaries from England, the United States, and other countries established missionary and boarding schools in India.[19] Later as these schools gained popularity, more were started, and some gained prestige. These schools marked the beginning of modern schooling in India. The syllabus and calendar they followed became the benchmark for schools in modern India. Today most schools follow themissionary school model for tutoring, subject/syllabus, and governance, with minor changes.[20]
Schools in India range from large campuses with thousands of students and hefty fees to schools where children are taught under a tree with a small / no campus and are free of cost. There are various boards of schools in India, namelyCentral Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), Madrasa Boards of various states, Matriculation Boards of various states, State Boards of various boards, Anglo Indian Board, among others. Today's typical syllabus includes language(s), mathematics, science – physics, chemistry, biology, geography, history, general knowledge, and information technology/computer science. Extracurricular activities include physical education/sports and cultural activities like music, choreography, painting, and theatre/drama.[21]
Europe
Albert Bettannier's 1887 paintingLa Tache noire depicts a child being taught about the "lost" province ofAlsace-Lorraine in the aftermath of theFranco-Prussian War – an example of how European schools were often used in order to inoculateNationalism in their pupils.
In much of continental Europe, the termschool usually applies toprimary education, with primary schools that last between four and nine years, depending on the country. It also applies tosecondary education, with secondary schools often divided betweenGymnasiums andvocational schools, which again, depending on country and type of school, educate students for between three and six years. In Germany, students graduating from Grundschule are not allowed to progress into a vocational school directly. Instead, they are supposed to proceed to one of Germany's general education schools such asGesamtschule,Hauptschule,Realschule orGymnasium.[22] When they leave that school, which usually happens at age 15–19, they may proceed to a vocational school. The term school is rarely used fortertiary education, except for someupper orhigh schools (German: Hochschule), which describe colleges and universities.[22]
InEastern Europe modern schools (afterWorld War II), of both primary and secondary educations, often are combined. In contrast, secondary education might be split into accomplished or not. The schools are classified as middle schools of general education. For the technical purposes, they include "degrees" of the education they provide out of three available: the first – primary, the second – unaccomplished secondary, and the third – accomplished secondary. Usually, the first two degrees of education (eight years) are always included. In contrast, the last one (two years) permits the students to pursuevocational or specialized educations.
In North America, the termschool can refer to any educational institution at any level and covers all of the following:preschool (fortoddlers),kindergarten,elementary school,middle school (also called intermediate school or junior high school, depending on specific age groups and geographic region), high school (or in some cases senior high school), college, university, andgraduate school.[23]
In the United States, school performance through high school is monitored by each state'sdepartment of education.Charter schools are publicly funded elementary or secondary schools that have been freed from some of the rules, regulations, and statutes that apply to other public schools. The termsgrammar school andgrade school are sometimes used to refer to a primary school due to British colonial legacies.[24] In addition, there are tax-fundedmagnet schools which offer different programs and instruction not available in traditional schools.
Africa
In West Africa, "school" can also refer to "bush" schools, Quranic schools, or apprenticeships. These schools include formal and informal learning.
Bush schools are training camps that pass down cultural skills, traditions, and knowledge to their students. Bush schools are semi-similar to traditional western schools because they are separated from the larger community. These schools are located in forests outside of the towns and villages, and the space used is solely for these schools. Once the students have arrived in the forest, they cannot leave until their training is complete. Visitors are prohibited from these areas.[25]
Instead of being separated by age, Bush schools are separated by gender. Women and girls cannot enter the boys' bush school territory and vice versa. Boys receive training in cultural crafts, fighting, hunting, and community laws among other subjects.[25] Girls are trained in their own version of the boys' bush school. They practice domestic affairs such as cooking, childcare, and being a good wife. Their training is focused on how to be a proper woman by societal standards.
Qur'anic schools are the principal way of teaching the Quran and knowledge of the Islamic faith. These schools also fostered literacy and writing during the time of colonization. Today, the emphasis is on the different levels of reading, memorizing, and reciting the Quran. Attending a Qur'anic school is how children become recognized members of the Islamic faith. Children often attend state schools and a Qur'anic school.
In Mozambique, specifically, there are two kinds of Qur'anic schools. They are the tariqa based and the Wahhabi-based schools. What makes these schools different is who controls them. Tariqa schools are controlled at the local level. In contrast, the Wahhabi are controlled by the Islamic Council.[26] Within the Qur'anic school system, there are levels of education. They range from a basic level of understanding, called chuo and kioni in local languages, to the most advanced, which is called ilimu.[27]
In Nigeria, the termschool broadly coversdaycares,nursery schools,primary schools,secondary schools andtertiary institutions. Primary and secondary schools are either privately funded by religious institutions and corporate organisations or government-funded. Government-funded schools are commonly referred to as public schools. Students spend six years in primary school, three years in junior secondary school, and three years in senior secondary school. The first nine years of formal schooling is compulsory under the Universal Basic Education Program (UBEC).[28] Tertiary institutions include public and private universities, polytechnics, and colleges of education. Universities can be funded by the federal government, state governments, religious institutions, or individuals and organisations.
Ownership and operation
Many schools are owned or funded bystates.Private schools operate independently from the government.[29][better source needed] Private schools usually rely on fees from families whose children attend the school for funding; however, sometimes such schools also receive government support (for example, throughSchool vouchers). Many private schools are affiliated with a particular religion; these are known asparochial schools.[30]
Schools are organized spaces purposed for teaching and learning. The classrooms where teachers teach and students learn are of central importance. Classrooms may be specialized for certain subjects, such as laboratory classrooms for science education and workshops forindustrial arts education.
Typical schools have many other rooms and areas, which may include:[31]
Cafeteria (Commons), dining hall or canteen where students eat lunch and often breakfast and snacks.
Athletic field, playground,gym, or track place where students participating in sports orphysical education practice
Schoolyards, all-purpose playfields typically inelementary schools, often made of concrete.
Auditorium or hall where student theatrical and musical productions can be staged and where all-school events such as assemblies are held
Office where the administrative work of the school is done
Library where students ask librarians reference questions, check out books and magazines, and often use computers
Computer labs where computer-based work is done and the internet accessed
Cultural activities where the students uphold their cultural practice through activities like games, dance, and music
Architecture
A classroom block with schoolbag racks inWestern Sydney, Australia
Educational architecture, school architecture or school building design is a specific practice of commercialarchitecture where the building design is focused for the primary purpose of educational instruction, such as schools anduniversities, as well as other educational institutions. The design of a building can significantly influence the learning experience of students.[32] Additionally, because schools are important sources of traffic, employment and community activities, school buildings often act as anchor institutions in neighborhoods or communities.[33][34]
Various countries have gone through significant changes in philosophies associated with educational institutions, influenced by trends in investment by governments as well as larger changes ineducational philosophy.
Education facilities in low-income countries
Inlow-income countries, only 32% of primary, 43% of lower secondary and 52% of upper secondary schools have access toelectricity.[35] This affects access to theinternet, which is just 37% in upper secondary schools in low-income countries, as compared to 59% in those in middle-income countries and 93% in those inhigh-income countries.[35]
Access to basicwater,sanitation andhygiene is also far from universal. Among upper secondary schools, only 53% in low-income countries and 84% in middle-income countries have access to basic drinking water. Access to water and sanitation is universal in high-income countries.[35]
To curtail violence, some schools have addedCCTVsurveillance cameras. This is especially common in schools withgang activity or violence.
The safety of staff and students is increasingly becoming an issue for school communities in the U.S., an issue most schools are addressing through improved security. Some have also taken measures such as installingmetal detectors orvideo surveillance. Others have even taken measures such as having the children swipe identification cards as they board the school bus. These plans have included door numbering to aid public safety response for some schools.[36]
Other security concerns faced by schools include bomb threats, gangs, and vandalism.[37] In recognition of these threats, the United NationsSustainable Development Goal 4 advocates for upgrading education facilities to provide a safe, non-violent learning environment.[38]
School health services are services from medical, teaching and other professionals applied in or out of school to improve the health and well-being of children and, in some cases, whole families. These services have been developed in different ways around the globe. However, the fundamentals are constant: the early detection, correction, prevention, or amelioration of disease, disability, and abuse from which school-aged children can suffer.
Some schools offer remote access to their classes over the internet. Online schools also can provide support to traditional schools, as in the case of theSchool Net Namibia. Some online classes also provide experience in a class. When people take them, they have already been introduced to the subject and know what to expect. Classes provide high school/college credit, allowing students to take the classes at their own pace. Many online classes cost money to take, but some are offered free.
A staged example of an online classroom usingJitsi. The teacher is sharing their screen.
Internet-based distance learning programs are offered widely through many universities. Instructors teach through online activities and assignments. Online classes are taught the same as in-person, with the same curriculum. The instructor offers the syllabus with their fixed requirements like any other class. Students can virtually turn their assignments in to their instructors according to deadlines. This being through via email or on the course webpage. This allows students to work at their own pace yet meet the correct deadlines. Students taking an online class have more flexibility in their schedules to take their classes at a time that works best.
Conflicts with taking an online class may include not being face to face with the instructor when learning or being in an environment with other students. Online classes can also make understanding the content challenging, especially when unable to get in quick contact with the instructor. Online students have the advantage of using other online sources with assignments or exams for that specific class. Online classes also have the advantage of students not needing to leave their house for a morning class or worrying about their attendance for that class. Students can work at their own pace to learn and achieve within that curriculum.[39]
The convenience of learning at home has been an attraction point for enrolling online. Students can attend class anywhere a computer can go – at home, in a library, or while traveling internationally. Online school classes are designed to fit a student's needs while allowing students to continue working and tending to their other obligations.[40] Online school education is divided into three subcategories: Online Elementary School, Online Middle School, Online High school.
As a profession, teaching has levels ofwork-related stress (WRS)[41] that are among the highest of any profession in some countries, such as the United Kingdom and the United States.[42] The degree of this problem is becoming increasingly recognized and support systems are being put into place.[43][44]
Stress sometimes affects students more severely than teachers, up to the point where the students are prescribed stress medication. This stress is claimed to be related to standardized testing, and the pressure on students to score above average.[45][46]
According to a 2008 mental health study by the Associated Press and mtvU,[47] eight in 10 U.S. college students said they had sometimes or frequently experienced stress in their daily lives. This was an increase of 20% from a survey five years previously. Thirty-four percent had felt depressed at some point in the past three months, 13 percent had been diagnosed with a mental health condition such as an anxiety disorder or depression, and 9 percent had seriously considered suicide.[47]
Schools and their teachers have always been under pressure – for instance, pressure to cover the curriculum, perform well compared to other schools, and avoid the stigma of being "soft" or "spoiling" toward students. Forms of discipline, such as control over when students may speak, and normalized behaviour, such as raising a hand to speak, are imposed in the name of greater efficiency. Practitioners ofcritical pedagogy maintain that such disciplinary measures have no positive effect on student learning. Indeed, some argue that disciplinary practices detract from learning, saying that they undermine students' dignity and sense ofself-worth – the latter occupying a more primary role in students'hierarchy of needs.
^Kuhlmann, Stefan (27 January 2017).Research Handbook on Innovation Governance for Emerging Economies: Towards Better Models. Cheltehnham, UK: Edward Elgar.ISBN978-1-78347-191-1.OCLC971520924.
