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| Satsuma Rebellion | |||||||
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| Part of theMeiji Restoration and theShizoku rebellions | |||||||
 Map of the campaign | |||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||
 Empire of Japan |  Satsuma Domain | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| Strength | |||||||
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| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| 15,000 killed and wounded[1] | |||||||
TheSatsuma Rebellion, also known as theSeinan War (Japanese:西南戦争,Hepburn:Seinan Sensō;lit. 'Southwestern War'), was arevolt of disaffectedsamurai against the new imperial government of theEmpire of Japan, nine years into theMeiji era. Its name comes from theSatsuma Domain, which had been influential in theRestoration and became home to unemployed samurai after military reforms rendered their status obsolete. The rebellion lasted from 29 January until 24 September of 1877, when it was decisively crushed, and its leader,Saigō Takamori, was shot and mortally wounded.
Saigō's rebellion was the last and most serious of a series of armed uprisings against the new government of the Empire of Japan, thepredecessor state to modernJapan. The rebellion was very expensive for the government, which forced it to make numerous monetary reforms including leaving thegold standard. The conflict effectively ended the samurai class and ushered in modern warfare fought by conscript soldiers instead of military nobles. It is also the most recent civil war fought in Japan.
AlthoughSatsuma had been one of the key players in theMeiji Restoration and theBoshin War, and although many men from Satsuma had risen to influential positions in the newMeiji government, there was growing dissatisfaction with the direction the country was taking. The modernization of the country meant the abolition of the privilegedsocial status of the samurai class - contrasting with the original reformist vision of creating a parliament ofDaimyos, and had undermined their financial position. The very rapid and massive changes toJapanese culture,language, dress and society appeared to many samurai to be a betrayal of thejōi ('expel the barbarian') portion of thesonnō jōi justification used to overthrow the formerTokugawa shogunate.[3]
Saigō Takamori was a well known and powerful Samurai lord of his time and one of the senior leaders of the Satsuma clan, he fiercely supported the imperial faction throughoutBakumatsu and was one of the prominentrestoration figures during theBoshin war, he was especially concerned about growing political corruption – popular prints depicted the rebel army with banners bearing the wordsshinsei-kōtoku (新政厚徳;lit. 'new government, rich virtue'). Saigō was a strong proponent of war withKorea in theSeikanron debate of 1873. At one point, he offered to visit Korea in person and to provide acasus belli by the likely outcome of his being assassinated by Korean nationalists. Saigō expected both that a war would ultimately be successful for Japan and also that the initial stages of it would offer a means by which the samurai whose cause he championed could find meaningful and beneficial death. When the plan was rejected, Saigō resigned from all of his government positions in protest and returned to his hometown ofKagoshima, as did many other Satsuma ex-samurai in the military and police forces.[3]
To help support and employ these men, in 1874 Saigō established a private academy known as theShi-gakkō in Kagoshima. Soon 132 branches were established all over the prefecture. The “training” provided was not purely academic: although the Chinese classics were taught, all students were required to take part in weapons training and instruction in tactics. Saigō also started anartillery school. The schools resembledparamilitary political organizations more than anything else, and they enjoyed the support of the governor of Satsuma, who appointed disaffected samurai to political offices, where they came to dominate the Kagoshima government. Support for Saigō was so strong that Satsuma had effectively seceded from the central government by the end of 1876. This was similar to the Satsuma and Choshu's position during Bakumatsu, in which the Shogunate maintained little control over these domains.[4]
As per the 1873 conscription law, Japan was divided into six military districts with conscripts drawn by lots, with seven years service (three active and four reserve) for the conscripted and service for 20 years in the national militia for those not chosen for active service.
A cavalry squadron contained 150 in wartime. However, due to difficulties in securing horses suited for modern war, only three squadrons were available, for a total of 450 cavalrymen (including the Imperial guard squadron). An infantry regiment had three battalions of 1,088 men and 16 battalion staff each. 14 such regiments existed for a total of 45,920 infantry. An engineer company contained 150 men. The engineers had 10 companies, giving a total of 1,500 engineers. The train companies contained 80 men. There were a total of six companies giving a total of 480 men. There were also nine coastal artillery battalions of 100 men, a total of 900 men.[5]
The mobile artillery consisted of 12 mountain gun batteries with 1,920 men and six field gun batteries with 780 men, with each battery containing 12 guns. A total of 2,700 men with 108 guns were in the mobile artillery.[5]
The imperial guard, a force drawn from the pro-imperial forces of the Boshin War, was organised into two regiments of infantry (4,384), one cavalry squadron (150), one artillery battalion (12 guns and 290 men), one engineer company (150), and a train company (80 men), giving a total of 5,054 men.[5]
In 1871, the imperial government organised the Rasotsu, which expanded rapidly from its original 3,000 to 18,000 in 1877. These policemen were militarised and saw action throughout the rebellion.[5] During the conflict, the government side expended, on average, 322,000 rounds of ammunition and 1,000 artillery shells per day.[6]
The forces of Saigo were only partly modernised, with an ad hoc organisation made in 1877 with 6 infantry battalions of 2,000 men, each with 10 companies of 200 per battalion. There was little to no cavalry in the rebel army and only 200 gunners for the 28 mountain, 2 field and 30 mortar pieces assembled by the rebels.[5]
Word of Saigō's academies was greeted with considerable concern in Tokyo. The government had just dealt with several small but violent samurai revolts inKyūshū, and they found the prospect of rebellion by the numerous and fierce Satsuma samurai, led by the famous and popular Saigō, an alarming one. In December 1876, the Meiji government sent a police officer named Nakahara Hisao and 57 other men to investigate reports of subversive activities and unrest. The men were captured, and undertorture, confessed that they were spies who had been sent to assassinate Saigō. Although Nakahara later repudiated the confession, it was widely believed in Satsuma and was used as justification by the disaffected samurai that a rebellion was necessary in order to "protect Saigō". Fearing a rebellion, the Meiji government sent a warship to Kagoshima toremove the weapons stockpiled at the Kagoshima arsenal on 30 January 1877. This, accompanied by an elimination of samurai rice stipends in 1877, provoked open conflict. Outraged by the government's tactics, 50 students from Saigō's academy attacked the Somuta Arsenal and carried off weapons. Over the next three days, more than 1000 students staged raids on the naval yards and other arsenals.[3]
Presented with this sudden success, the greatly dismayed Saigō was reluctantly persuaded to come out of his semi-retirement to lead the rebellion against the central government.
In February 1877, the Meiji government dispatchedHayashi Tomoyuki, an official with theHome Ministry with AdmiralKawamura Sumiyoshi in the warshipTakao to ascertain the situation. Satsuma's governor,Oyama Tsunayoshi, explained that the uprising was in response to the government's assassination attempt on Saigō, and asked that Admiral Kawamura (Saigō's cousin) come ashore to help calm the situation. After Oyama departed, a flotilla of small ships filled with armed men attempted to boardTakao by force, but were repelled. The following day, Hayashi declared to Oyama that he could not permit Kawamura to go ashore when the situation was so unsettled, and that the attack onTakao constituted an act oflèse-majesté.
On his return toKobe on 12 February, Hayashi met with GeneralYamagata Aritomo andItō Hirobumi, and it was decided that theImperial Japanese Army would need to be sent to Kagoshima to prevent the revolt from spreading to other areas of the country sympathetic to Saigō. On the same day, Saigō met with his lieutenantsKirino Toshiaki andShinohara Kunimoto and announced his intention of marching to Tokyo to ask questions of the government. Rejecting large numbers of volunteers, he made no attempt to contact any of the other domains for support, and no troops were left at Kagoshima to secure his base against an attack. To aid in the air of legality, Saigō wore his army uniform. Marching north, his army was hampered by the deepest snowfall Satsuma had seen in more than 50 years, which, because of the similarity to the weather that had greeted those setting out to enact the Meiji Restoration nine years earlier, was interpreted by some as a sign of divine support.[3]
The Satsuma vanguard crossed intoKumamoto Prefecture on 14 February. The commandant ofKumamoto Castle, Major GeneralTani Tateki had 3,800 soldiers and 600 policemen at his disposal. However, most of the garrison was from Kyūshū, while a significant number of officers were natives of Kagoshima; their loyalties were open to question. Rather than risk desertions or defections, Tani decided to stand on the defensive. On 19 February, the first shots of the war were fired as the defenders of Kumamoto Castle opened fire on Satsuma units attempting to force their way into the castle. Kumamoto Castle, built in 1598, was among the strongest in Japan, but Saigō was confident that his forces would be more than a match for Tani's conscripts, who were still demoralized by the recentShinpūren rebellion.
On 22 February, the main Satsuma army arrived and attacked Kumamoto Castle in apincer movement. Fighting continued into the night. Imperial forces fell back, and acting MajorNogi Maresuke of the Kokura Fourteenth Regiment lost the regimental colors in fierce fighting. However, despite their successes, the Satsuma army failed to take the castle and began to realize that the conscript army was not as ineffective as first assumed. After two days of fruitless attack, the Satsuma forces dug into the rock-hard icy ground around the castle and tried to starve the garrison out in a siege. The situation was especially desperate for the defenders as their stores of food and ammunition had been depleted by a warehouse fire shortly before the rebellion began. During the siege, many Kumamoto ex-samurai flocked to Saigō's banner, swelling his forces to around 20,000 men. In the meantime, on March 9, Saigō, Kirino, and Shinohara were stripped of their court ranks and titles.[3]
On the night of 8 April, a force from Kumamoto Castle made a sortie, forcing open a gap in the Satsuma lines and enabling desperately needed supplies to reach the garrison. The main Imperial Army, under GeneralKuroda Kiyotaka with the assistance of GeneralYamakawa Hiroshi, arrived in Kumamoto on 12 April, putting the now heavily outnumbered Satsuma forces to flight.
On 4 March, Imperial Army General Yamagata ordered a frontal assault against Tabaruzaka, guarding the approaches to Kumamoto, which developed into an eight-day-long battle. Tabaruzaka was held by some 15,000 samurai from Satsuma, Kumamoto andHitoyoshi against the Imperial Army's 9th Infantry Brigade (some 9,000 men). At the height of the battle, Saigō wrote a private letter to Prince Arisugawa, restating his reasons for going to Tokyo. His letter indicated that he was not committed to rebellion and sought a peaceful settlement. The government, however, refused to negotiate.
In order to cut Saigō off from his base, an imperial force with three warships, 500 policemen, and several companies of infantry landed in Kagoshima on 8 March, seized arsenals, and took Satsuma's governor into custody.
Yamagata also landed a detachment with two infantry brigades and 1,200 policemen behind the rebel lines, so as to fall on them from the rear fromYatsushiro Bay. Imperial forces landed with few losses, then pushed north seizing the city ofMiyanohara on 19 March. After receiving reinforcements, the imperial force, now totaling 4,000 men, attacked the rear elements of the Satsuma army and drove them back.
Tabaruzaka was one of the most intense campaigns of the war. Imperial forces emerged victorious, but with heavy casualties on both sides. Each side had suffered more than 4,000 killed or wounded.[citation needed]
After his failure to take Kumamoto, Saigō led his followers on a seven-day march to Hitoyoshi. Morale was extremely low, and lacking any strategy, the Satsuma forces dug in to wait for the next Imperial Army offensive. However, the Imperial Army was likewise depleted, and fighting was suspended for several weeks to permit reinforcement. When the offensive was resumed, Saigo retreated toMiyazaki, leaving behind numerous pockets of samurai in the hills to conductguerrilla attacks.
On 24 July, the Imperial Army forced Saigō out ofMiyakonojō, followed byNobeoka. Troops were landed atŌita andSaiki north of Saigō's army, and Saigō was caught in a pincer attack. However, the Satsuma army was able to cut its way free from encirclement. By 17 August, the Satsuma army had been reduced to 3000 combatants, and had lost most of its modern firearms and all of its artillery.
The surviving rebels made a stand on the slopes of Mount Enodake, and were soon surrounded. Determined not to let the rebels escape again, Yamagata sent in a large force which outnumbered the Satsuma army 7:1. Most of Saigō's remaining forces either surrendered or committedseppuku. However, Saigō burned his private papers and army uniform on 19 August, and slipped away towards Kagoshima with his remaining able-bodied men. Despite Yamagata's efforts over the next several days, Saigō and his remaining 500 men reached Kagoshima on September 1 and seizedShiroyama, overlooking the city.[citation needed]
Saigō and his remaining samurai were pushed back to Kagoshima where, in afinal battle, the Battle of Shiroyama, Imperial Army troops under the command of GeneralYamagata Aritomo and marines under the command of AdmiralKawamura Sumiyoshi outnumbered Saigō 60-to-1. However, Yamagata was determined to leave nothing to chance. The imperial troops spent several days constructing an elaborate system of ditches, walls and obstacles to prevent another breakout. The five government warships in Kagoshima harbor added their firepower to Yamagata'sartillery, and began to systematically reduce the rebel positions.
After Saigō rejected a letter dated September 1 from Yamagata drafted by a youngSuematsu Kenchō asking him to surrender, Yamagata ordered a full frontal assault on 24 September 1877. By 6 a.m., only 40 rebels were still alive. Saigō was severely wounded. Legend says that one of his followers,Beppu Shinsuke, acted askaishakunin and aided Saigō in committingseppuku before he could be captured. However, other evidence contradicts this, stating that Saigō in fact died of the bullet wound and then had his head removed by Beppu in order to preserve his dignity.
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After Saigo's death, Beppu and the last of the "ex-samurai" drew their swords and plunged downhill toward the Imperial positions and to their deaths. With these deaths, the Satsuma rebellion came to an end.
Financially, crushing the Satsuma Rebellion cost the government a total of¥420,000,000 (£8,400,000),[7] forcing Japan off thegold standard and causing the government to printpaper currency. Economic effects of the Satsuma Rebellion resulted in the passing of the Act of 4 February 1877, which reduced the land tax from 3% to 2.5%. The Rebellion reduced Japan's yearly expenditure from £13,700,000 to £10,250,000, and it raised Japan'snational debt from £28,000,000 to £70,000,000.[8] The costs of pacifying the former samurai led to the Meiji government becoming virtually bankrupt; the government was forced to sell off state-owned enterprises such as factories and mines to politically-connected merchants and former officials at low prices, leading to the instant formation of large industrial firms orzaibatsu. These state-owned industries had been operating at a loss, and Finance Minister Matsukata Masayoshi decided to sell all of these to politically connected capitalists at a loss, except the railroad, telegraph and military industries. He also cancelled scholarships for Japanese students abroad and fired foreign experts.[9] Meanwhile, the remnants of the militaristic faction that supported Saigo's invasion proposal evolved into Japanese right-wing groups such as thegenyosha andkokuryūkai.[10]
The rebellion also effectively ended the samurai class, as the new Imperial Japanese Army built onheiminconscripts had proven itself in battle. More critically, the defeat of the samurai displayed the power of modern artillery and rifles, against which abanzai charge had no appreciable effect.[11] On 22 February 1889,Emperor Meijipardoned Saigō posthumously.[12] Statues inUeno Park,Tokyo and near the ruins ofKagoshima Castle stand in his memory. Saigō Takamori was labelled as a tragic hero by the people, and his actions were considered an honorable example ofbushido andYamato-damashii.
In English, the most common name for the war is "Satsuma Rebellion". Mark Ravina, the author ofThe Last Samurai: The Life and Battles of Saigo Takamori, argued that "Satsuma Rebellion" is not the best name for the war because the English name does not well represent the war and its Japanese name. Ravina said that the war's scope was much farther than Satsuma, and he characterizes the event as being closer to a civil war than a rebellion. Ravina prefers the English name "War of the Southwest".[13]
Western interpretations include the 2003 American filmThe Last Samurai directed byEdward Zwick, which combines into a single narrative historical situations belonging both to theBoshin War, the Satsuma Rebellion, and other similar uprisings of ex-samurai during the early Meiji period.[14]
The song "Shiroyama" on the albumThe Last Stand by the Swedish power metal bandSabaton is about the Satsuma rebellion.[15]
