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Thesardana (Catalan pronunciation:[səɾˈðanə]; pluralsardanes inCatalan) is a Catalanmusical genre typical ofCatalan culture anddanced in circle following a set of steps.[1][2][3] The dance was originally from theEmpordà region, but started gaining popularity throughout Catalonia from the late 19th century to beginning of the 20th century[4] after the modernisation done byJosep Maria Ventura i Casas.[1]
Men and women join together in a circle by holding hands and facing inwards to dance either the historicalsardana curta (with an approximate duration of 5 minutes) or the present-daysardana llarga (with a duration of approximately 12–13 minutes).[3] Other more unusual sardanes are thesardana de lluïment and thesardana revessa.[5]
The steps are meticulously counted as two- or three-step movements taken sideways within the circle. The direction of the steps is alternated. The hands stay on the hip or shoulder level depending on the step structure. The pattern of thechoreography has jumping intervals changing with the music. Usually there is more than one circle with varyingtempo and levels of dance knowledge.[3]
The participants are calledsardanistes. Professional dancers organise themselves incolles sardanistes,colla meaning group or club. Allcolles are united under theConfederació Sardanista de Catalunya.[3]
Sardana is mainly danced during festivities and on weekends.Sardanes danced during a festival are termedaplecs. Brief public dances are known asballades. The accompanying orchestra of 11 people, acobla, includes 10 wind instruments and a bass. One person plays theflabiol (aflute) and thetambori (a smallhand drum). Since the 1980s female musicians are also allowed in thecobles.[3]
This dance stands out from others because it allows people to join a public dance circle at any time, for anyone of any age and background who is familiar with the sardana can drop their coat and bag in the centre of the circle and join in. It is emphasised bysardanistes as the specialty of thesardana.[3]
The origin of the Sardana is unknown. The oldest found reference to the word Sardana is from 1552.[6][1] From the 16th century to the 19th century a folk dance known as sardana propagated around the territory of the presentprovince of Girona. The sardana was a popular dance in Empordà,Rosselló andGarrotxa at the middle of the 19th century.[1][3]Sardana llarga fits the prototype of invented traditions common in theIndustrial Revolution.[1] It is believed that the invented traditions are a way to stabilize cultural anchors in a time of rapid socioeconomic or political change.[1] The modern sardana was created in the context of theRenaixença period, in which some people wanted to relate the Sardana with dances ofAncient Greek origin, with the purpose of linkingClassical antiquity with oldEmpúries while taking advantage of the rising popularity of the modern sardana in Empordà. This imagined account is the legendary origin of the dance.[6][7] The invention served to symbolize the distinct Catalanethos promoted by the then-newbornCatalan nationalism.[7][6] In fact, today Catalans are known for their musicality throughout Spain and much ofWestern Europe; sardana has emerged as a major source of personal and social identity.[1]
Ignoring the myth, the creation ofsardana llarga or its evolution was driven by three people: Andreu Toron, Miquel Pardàs, andJosep Maria Ventura (Pep Ventura). Andreu Toron was responsible for introducing a type ofoboe-tenor known in Catalonia as thetenora. This happened in 1849 atPerpignan.[6] In parallel, influences to the music composition ofsardana llarga include the popularItalian andGermanoperas of the time[1][6][7] as well as Contrapàs, a Catalan dance which in religious celebrations precededsardana curta.[2][3][8] These influences evolved intosardanes (plural ofsardana) of different lengths. As a consequence, people started counting steps in order to finish at the same time. Shorter choreographies could be accommodated in longer melodies. The new melodies which progressively were made popular required new instruments, increasing the size of thecobla.[6] Similar to what happened with the Catalan language when in 1891Pompeu Fabra published hisgrammar, the differentsardanes were standardised into what today is known assardana llarga.Choreography was updated with slight differences from the originalNorth-Catalan dance. Pep Ventura is credited for stabilizing the different variants around a clear6
8 rhythm[citation needed] and making the instrumental ensemble of a fixed size. He included the today's standard long steps (els llargs) and the eleven playercobla band.[1] Though some Iberian and Mediterranean circle dances follow similar patterns, instrumental music for the sardana has achieved a complexity of its own.[citation needed]
In 1850 Miquel Pardàs publishesMétodo per aprender á ballar sardanas llargas ('Method to learn how to dancesardana llarga').[6]
By 1860 the dance was popular in Barcelona and from there it disseminated through Catalan towns and villages.[1] Between 1840 and 1860 the sardana was established as "dance of the Catalans".[1] Its influence was extended throughout the 20th century thanks to the dance groupObra del Ballet Popular [ca], which organisedaplecs and other sardana events in communities where it was previously unknown.[1]
In 1924, during the dictatorship ofMiguel Primo de Rivera, the civil governor ofBarcelona banned the patriotic sardanaLa Santa Espina, seen as beingCatalanist.[6][9] This fact increased the identification of the sardana with Catalanism.[6] The creation of associations andcobles grew dramatically thanks to the continuous attack fromthe Establishment andLerrouxism.[6]
Sardana was temporally prohibited in the 1940s inFrancoist Spain because it was considered to foment false feelings of pride and superiority among the Catalans. The prohibition was made on certain locales in and around Barcelona. Nevertheless, sardana was considered relatively innocuous in Spain and this allowed the use of sardana as a peaceful protest against the more effective and oppressive campaign to eliminate the public use of the Catalan language. Even more, pro-Franco Catalans continued to dance sardana throughout the Franco period.[1][3]
Since the 1960, theObra de Ballet Popular travels from one city to another with theFlama de la Sardana ('Eternal light of the Sardana'). Each city is named "Heir to the Sardana" for the year in which it conserves the Eternal Light.[1]
In the year 2010, theGovernment of Catalonia added the sardana to theCatàleg del Patrimoni Festiu de Catalunya ('Catalonia's festivities heritage catalogue') and declared it a festivity of national interest.[3][10]
In 2015 theSpanish parliament approved unanimously an initiative of thePeople's Party of Spain to urge theSpanish Government to promote sardana for inclusion in theUNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage.[11][12] The same vote was done in 2002 inSpain's senate and was rejected due to the negative vote of People's Party of Spain.[12][13]
The dance became a national symbol because it is identified with the core Catalan values includingharmony,brotherhood, anddemocracy.[1][3] People of all classes, ages, genres and origins are encouraged to dance sardana together. It is hard to believe this dance had emerged without expressing qualities appreciated by Catalans.[1] The sardana is considered by Catalans one of the most prominent elements of their culture and deserving to be defended against threats from outsiders. This view was greatly increased with the suppression ofLa Santa Espina in 1924[6][9] and the prohibition ofsardana in 1940s Francoist Spain and its use as a protest mechanism.[1] Fear of culture loss is notable among Catalans because they define themselves in cultural terms, so suppressing their culture is considered equivalent to annihilation as a people. This vexes and bafflesCastilians and otherSpaniards whose custom believes that birthplace and descent primarily define national identity. The tradition ofCatalan people is that biology and culture are separable. Catalan ethnic identity can be acquired by learning, they do not consider it a biological or race matter. However, this concept of culture by acquisition represents also a fear of being consumed by the dominant Castilian culture. In the case of sardana, the rigidity of the dance rules and group exclusivity by those who follow the detailed rules is a handicap for inclusion. In sardana the dancers who do not follow the rules are excluded to their own circle until they master the technicalities.[1]
Andalusian immigration in the 20th century introduced the Andalusianferia de abril andflamenco dancing. The dance was perceived by some as a manipulation by the Spanish state, to be used as an instrument of cultural domination. Ensuring that sardana prevailed was somehow seen as vital to Catalan culture survival. In fact, learning sardana can be considered a way of expressing solidarity with Catalans. A quote fromMontserrat Roig's novelMolta roba i poc sabó ... i tan neta que la volen reads:[1]
I know people in the government who are very well-intentioned and are able to participate in our way of life ... They're people of good faith who have danced Maragall [a great Catalan poet], who understand our language, and who send their children to spend the summer at the beaches of Girona.
— Montserrat Roig,Molta roba i poc sabó (1970)
The protagonist of the novel says this to defend Castilians who support Catalan culture. The sardana forms part of Catalan culture and as such has to be protected from possible incursions by the dominant Castilian culture. Failing to adopt Catalan culture might cause it to disappear, effectively annihilating Catalan people.[1]
Another issue recently introduced by Spanish nationalism concerns the origins of the creator of the modern sardana (sardana llarga),Josep Maria Ventura i Casas. He was born in 1817 in Andalusia from Catalan parents, and when he was 2 years old he moved to Catalonia along with his father. Castilian custom would define Pep Ventura as Andalusian due to his birthplace.[1] The attributed denial of Pep's Catalan identity is reflected in some Spanish press such asthe digital "El Español".[14] Historians andethnomusicologists generally refer to Pep Ventura as Catalan due to his lineage (his parents were from the Catalan region ofEmpordà), the first language he spoke (Catalan) and his habitual residence. The attributes and values in which Catalan people are invested make the sardana of Catalan nature, and it express Catalan qualities. As a result, bothsardana llarga and Pep Ventura have become symbols of national resistance against the power of Castile.[1]
Nowadays sardana is considered too rigid and conservative. Only a few younger dancers care about learning sardana and dance. Still, theCatalan government continues to invest indance schools and training. Itssocio-political relevance has decreased but holds its symbolic value.[3]
Music for the sardana is played by acobla, a band consisting of 10 wind instruments, double bass and atamborí (little drum) played by 11 musicians. The cobla has five woodwind instruments: theflabiol which is a small fipple flute, and thetenora andtible (two of each) which belong to the oboe family. These and thetamborí are typical Catalan instruments. The brass instruments are: twotrumpets, twofiscorns, and atrombone (usually a valve trombone). Thedouble bass was traditionally a three-stringed one, but now the part is usually written for and played on the modern four-stringed instrument.[15]
In Catalonia, about one hundred and thirty cobles are active, most of which are amateur bands. Outside Catalonia, there is at least one more cobla: Cobla La Principal d'Amsterdam.
The music written for the dance is asardana (plural:sardanes), and is usually in two sections (tirades), calledcurts andllargs, each of which may be repeated in various ways to form the pattern for the complete dance. There is usually an experienced dancer leading the circle. The dancers hold hands throughout the dance: arms down during thecurts and raised to shoulder height during thellargs.
=112 to 120, in2 =100 to 108, with long lyrical tunes accompanied by variants of adactyl rhythm. Thellargs is usually repeated the first time it is played.The number of measures in thecurts andllargs, called thetiratge or "run", is important to the players, and may be indicated before the start of the dance (e.g. a "run" shown as 25x79 indicates 25 measures ofcurts and 79 measures ofllargs) in order to terminate thetirada correctly with the correct foot, though a method commonly used is to count the measures in the firsttirada and not dance until the second has begun.
A dancer is called asardanista (plural:sardanistes).
As a relatively slow, non-performance dance, the sardana does not require special fitness. The dance circle can be opened to a highly variable number of dancers. When danced in the streets and town squares, small circles of dancers can be seen to form and grow: these are open circles calledrotllanes obertes, and passers-by can join, leaving their bags in the center of the circle. When a dance circle is too big it may split into smaller circles. The dancers are alternate men and women – with the man's partner on his right – and care must be taken by those joining not to split partners. Another kind of circle may be formed by members of organised sardana clubs calledcolles, and eachcolla may wear its own costume.
In order to dance sardanes comfortably the footwear must be flexible enough to allow the dancer to jump slightly when thellargs come. Traditionallysardanistes wear special dancing shoes calledespardenyes made of esparto grass fabric and with two long fabric strips to tie them up around the ankle. Nowadays most people have replaced these with regular trainers.
Many sardanes have sung versions, but mostly instrumental versions are used for dancing. Recordings of sardanes or sardanes played in concert usually contain theintroit, twocurts and twollargs. Sardanes may be recorded for dancing, having all theentrades in order. Often sardanes are written for special occasions or to commemorate people.
For over a century, the sardana has maintained its status as a potent symbol of Catalan national identity. Its origins extend back at least to the 16th century. Throughout the three subsequent centuries, localized folk dances known as the sardana flourished throughout a limited part of Catalonia, that is, in villages and towns situated in the present province of Girona. The modern sardana, though probably bearing some resemblance to the earlier forms, was created and standardized in 1850, and introduced shortly thereafter into Catalonia's capital city of Barcelona, from whence it diffused to the whole of Catalonia.
