The earliest known human settlement in Sarawak at theNiah Caves dates back 40,000 years. A series of Chinese ceramics dated from the 8th to 13th century AD was uncovered at the archaeological site of Santubong. The coastal regions of Sarawak came under the influence of theBruneian Empire in the 16th century. In 1839,James Brooke, a British explorer, arrived in Sarawak. He, and his descendants,governed the state from 1841 to 1946. DuringWorld War II, it wasoccupied by the Japanese for three years. After the war, the lastWhite Rajah,Charles Vyner Brooke, ceded Sarawak to Britain, and in 1946 it became aBritish Crown Colony. On 22 July 1963, Sarawak was granted self-government by the British and subsequently became one of the founding members of Malaysia, established on 16 September 1963. However, the federation was opposed by Indonesia, leading to a three-yearconfrontation. The creation of Malaysia also prompted acommunist insurgency that lasted until 1990.
The head of state is the governor, also known as theYang di-Pertua Negeri, while the head of government is thepremier. Sarawak is divided into administrative divisions and districts, governed by a system that is closely modelled on theWestminster parliamentary system and was the earliest state legislature system in Malaysia. Under the Malaysian constitution, Sarawak has greater autonomy than the states in Peninsular Malaysia.
Because of its natural resources, Sarawak specialises in the export of oil and gas,timber andpalm oil, but also possesses strong manufacturing, energy and tourism sectors. It is ethnically, culturally, religiously and linguistically diverse; its ethnic groups include Iban, Chinese, Malay, Bidayuh, Melanau, Orang Ulu, Indian, Eurasian and Kedayan.[22] English and Malay are the two official languages of the state;[23][24] there is no official religion.[25][26]
The generally-accepted explanation of the state's name is that it is derived from theSarawak Malay wordSerawak, which meansantimony.[27] A popular alternative explanation is that it is a contraction of the four Malay words purportedly uttered by Pangeran Muda Hashim (uncle to theSultan of Brunei), "Saya serah pada awak" (I surrender it to you), when he gave Sarawak toJames Brooke, an English explorer, in 1841.[27] However, the latter explanation is incorrect: the territory had been named Sarawak before the arrival of James Brooke, and the wordawak was not in the vocabulary of Sarawak Malay before the formation of Malaysia.[28] The area of today's Sarawak was known asCerava by Portuguese cartographers in the 16th century.
Sarawak is nicknamed "Land of the Hornbills" (Bumi Kenyalang). These birds are important cultural symbols for the Dayak people, representing the spirit of God. It is also believed that if a hornbill is seen flying over residences, it will bring good luck to the local community. Sarawak has eight of the world's fifty-four species of hornbills, and theRhinoceros hornbill is the state bird of Sarawak.[29]
Foragers are known to have lived around the west mouth of theNiah Caves (located 110 km (68 mi) southwest ofMiri) 40,000 years ago.[30][31] A modern human skull found near the Niah Caves is the oldest example of human remains found in Malaysia and the oldest modern human skull from Southeast Asia.[30][31][32][33] Chinese ceramics dating to theTang andSong dynasties (8th to 13th century AD, respectively) found at Santubong (nearKuching) hint at its significance as a seaport.[34]
One of the earliest Chinese records of an independent kingdom in Borneo is the 977 AD letter to the Chinese emperor from the ruler of Boni, which some scholars believe to refer to Borneo.[35] The Bruneians regained their independence from Srivijaya due to the onset of a Javanese-Sumatran war.[36] In 1225, the Chinese officialZhao Rukuo reported that Boni had 100 warships to protect its trade, and that there was great wealth in the kingdom.[37]Marco Polo suggested in his memoirs that the Great Khan or the ruler of theMongol Empire, attempted and failed many times in invading "Great Java" which was the European name for Bruneian controlled Borneo.[38][39][40][41] In the 1300s the Chinese annals,Nanhai zhi, reported that Brunei invaded or administered Sarawak andSabah as well as the Philippine kingdoms ofButuan,Sulu,Ma-i (Mindoro), Malilu 麻裏蘆 (present-dayManila),Shahuchong 沙胡重 (present-day Siocon), Yachen 啞陳 (Oton), and 文杜陵 Wenduling (present-dayMindanao),[42] which would regain their independence at a later date.[43]
The Melano kingdom existed from about 1300 to 1400 AD and was centred at the Mukah River. Rajah Tugau was a King in Sarawak who was mentioned in bothBruneian[44] and Filipino (Madja-as) sources.[45][46] His kingdom covered coastal Sarawak until Belait and consisted of groups of similar Melanau and Kajang language speakers who shared an almost identical culture and heritage.Nagarakertagama, written in 1365 during Hayam Wuruk, mentions Malano and Barune(ng) among the 14 tributaries of Majapahit. After the fall of Majapahit, Barune(ng) expanded its territory along the northern coast of Borneo.[47]: 36 According to the manuscript of Brunei's rulers, following the fall of Majapahit, Barunai led by Awang Semaun being reinforced by the Iban, conquered Tutong under its chief Mawanga and the whole of the Melano kingdom until Igan under its chief Basiung despite reinforcement from Sambas. Barunai continued the conquest of the entire south and then north of Borneo, after which he conquered the whole of Sulu and the Philippines.[48]
In the 14th century, theJavanese manuscriptNagarakretagama, written byPrapanca in 1365, mentionedBarune as the constituent state of HinduMajapahit,[49] which had to make an annualtribute of fortykatis ofcamphor. In 1369, Sulu which was also formerly part of Majapahit, successfully rebelled and then attacked Boni, and had invaded the Northeast Coast of Borneo[50] and afterwards had looted the capital of its treasure and gold including sacking two sacred pearls. A fleet from Majapahit succeeded in driving away the Sulus, but Boni was left weaker after the attack.[51] A Chinese report from 1371 described Boni as poor and totally controlled by Majapahit.[52]
TheBruneian Empire was established in the coastal regions of Sarawak by the mid-15th century,[53] and the Kuching area was known to Portuguesecartographers during the 16th century asCerava, one of the five great seaports of Borneo.[54][55] TheSultanate of Sarawak was established during this time and lasted for almost half a century before being reunited with Brunei in 1641.[56][57] By the early 19th century, the Bruneian Empire was in decline, retaining only a tenuous hold on the coastal regions of Sarawak which were otherwise controlled by semi-independentMalay leaders. Away from the coast, territorial wars were fought between theIban and aKenyah-Kayan alliance.[58]
The discovery of antimony ore in the Kuching region ledPengiran Indera Mahkota, a representative of the Sultan of Brunei, to increase development in the territory between 1824 and 1830. Increasing antimony production in the region led the Brunei Sultanate to demand higher taxes, which ultimately led to civil unrest.[59] In 1839, SultanOmar Ali Saifuddin II (1827–1852) assigned his unclePengiran Muda Hashim the task of restoring order but his inability to do so caused him to request the aid of British sailorJames Brooke. Brooke's success in quelling the revolt was rewarded with antimony, property and the governorship of Sarawak, which at that time consisted only of a small area centred on Kuching.[60][61]
TheBrooke family, later called theWhite Rajahs, set about expanding the territory they had been ceded.[62] With expansion came the need for efficient governance and thus, beginning in 1841, Sarawak was separated into the first of its administrative divisions[63] and theSarawak dollar, entered circulation in 1858.[64] By 1912, a total of five divisions had been established in Sarawak, each headed by aResident.[63] The Brooke family generally practised a paternalistic form of government with minimal bureaucracy, but were pressured to establish some form of legal framework. Since they were unfamiliar with local customs, the Brooke government created an advisory Supreme Council, mostly consisting of Malay chiefs. This council is the oldest state legislative assembly in Malaysia, with the first general council meeting taking place atBintulu in 1867.[65] In 1928, a judicial commissioner, Thomas Stirling Boyd, was appointed as the first legally trained judge. A similar system relating to matters concerning various Chinese communities was also formed.[66] Members of the local community were encouraged by the Brooke regime to focus on particular functions within the territory; the Ibans and other Dayak people were hired asmilitia while Malays were primarily administrators. Chinese, both local and immigrant, were mostly employed in plantations,[67] mines and as bureaucrats.[66] Expanding trade led to the formation of theBorneo Company Limited in 1856. The company was involved in a wide range of businesses in Sarawak including trade, banking, agriculture, mineral exploration, and development.[68]
Territorial expansion of theRaj of Sarawak from 1841 to 1905 played a significant role in defining the current borders of Sarawak.
Between 1853 and 1862, there were a number of uprisings against the Brooke government but all were successfully contained with the aid of local tribes.[66] To guard against future uprisings, a series of forts were constructed to protect Kuching, includingFort Margherita, completed in 1871. By that time Brooke's control of Sarawak was such that defences were largely unnecessary.[69]
Charles Anthoni Brooke succeeded his uncle as White Rajah in 1868. Under his rule, Sarawak gained Limbang and the Baram and Trusan valleys from the Sultan of Brunei. The Raj became a Britishprotectorate in 1888 with the imperial power responsible for foreign policy and the Brooke government maintaining its local administration.[70] Domestically, Brooke established theSarawak Museum – the oldest museum in Borneo – in 1891,[69][71] and brokered a peace inMarudi by ending intertribal wars there. Economic development continued, with oil wells being drilled from 1910 and the Brooke Dockyard opening two years later.Anthony Brooke would become Rajah Muda (heir apparent) in 1939.[72]
A centenary celebration of Brooke rule in Sarawak was held in 1941. During the celebration, anew constitution was introduced that would limit the power of the rajah and grant the Sarawak people a greater role in running the government. However, this constitution was never fully implemented due to the occupation of Sarawak by Japan.[73][66][note 1] That same year saw the United Kingdom withdraw its defensive maritime and air units to Singapore. After the departure of most of the military defenses from Sarawak, the Brooke regime adopted ascorched earth policy: The oil production facilities in Miri and the Kuching airfield were to be destroyed, after the airfield had been held for as long as possible. A Japanese invasion force led byKiyotake Kawaguchi landed in Miri on 16 December 1941 and captured Kuching on 24 December 1941, with British ground forces retreating toSingkawang in neighbouringDutch Borneo. There, after ten weeks of fighting, theAllied forces surrendered on 1 April 1942.[74]Charles Vyner Brooke, the last Rajah of Sarawak, had already left forSydney, Australia; his officers were captured by the Japanese and interned at theBatu Lintang camp.[75]
Sarawakremained part of theEmpire of Japan for three years and eight months. During this time it was divided into three provinces – Kuching-shu, Sibu-shu, and Miri-shu – each under their respective Provincial Governor. The Japanese otherwise preserved the Brooke administrative structure and appointed Japanese people to important government positions.[76] Allied forces later carried outOperation Semut to sabotage Japanese operations in Sarawak.[77] During theBattle of North Borneo, the Australian forces landed at Lutong-Miri area on 20 June 1945 and penetrated as far asMarudi andLimbang before halting their operations in Sarawak.[78] After thesurrender of Japan, the Japanese surrendered to the Australian forces atLabuan on 10 September 1945.[79][80] The following day, the Japanese forces at Kuching surrendered, and the Batu Lintang camp was liberated.[81] Sarawak was immediately placed underBritish Military Administration and managed by theAustralian Imperial Force until April 1946.[82][83]
Lacking the resources to rebuild Sarawak after the war, Charles Vyner Brooke decided to cede Sarawak as British Crown Colony[84] and a cession bill was put forth in the Council Negri (nowSarawak State Legislative Assembly), which was debated for three days. The bill passed on 17 May 1946 with 19 votes to 16.[85] Hundreds of Malay civil servants resigned in protest, sparking ananti-cession movement and the assassination of the second colonial governor of Sarawak, SirDuncan Stewart.[86] Despite the resistance, Sarawak became aBritish Crown colony on 1 July 1946.[3] Anthony Brooke opposed the cession of Sarawak to the British Crown,[87] for which he was banished from Sarawak by the colonial government.[66][note 2] He was only allowed to return 17 years later after Sarawak had become part of Malaysia.[88] In 1950 all anti-cession movements in Sarawak ceased after a clamp-down by the colonial government.[58]
On 27 May 1961,Tunku Abdul Rahman, the prime minister of theFederation of Malaya, announced a plan to form a greater federation together withSingapore,Sarawak,North Borneo andBrunei, to be called Malaysia. On 17 January 1962, theCobbold Commission was formed to gauge the support of Sarawak and Sabah for the plan; the Commission reported 80 per cent support for federation.[89][90] On 23 October 1962, five political parties in Sarawak formed a united front that supported the formation of Malaysia.[91] Sarawak wasofficially granted self-government on 22 July 1963,[3][4] and federated with Malaya, North Borneo (nowSabah), and Singapore to form the Federation of Malaysia on 16 September 1963.[92][93] The governments of the Philippines and Indonesia opposed the new federation, as did theBrunei People's Party and Sarawak-based communist groups, and in 1962, theBrunei Revolt broke out.[94] Indonesian presidentSukarno responded by deploying armed volunteers and, later, military forces into Sarawak.[95][96] Thousands of Sarawak communist members went toKalimantan, Indonesian Borneo, and underwent training with theCommunist Party of Indonesia. The most significant engagement of the confrontation was fought atPlaman Mapu in April 1965. The defeat at Plaman Mapu ultimately resulted in the fall of Sukarno and his replacement withSuharto as President of Indonesia.[97] Negotiations were restarted between Malaysia and Indonesia and led to the end of the confrontation on 11 August 1966.[98][note 3] Following continued disagreements with the federal government over proportions of taxes to be paid by Singapore to the federation government - on 9 August 1965, Singapore separated from Malaysia and became an independent and sovereign nation while both Sarawak and Sabah remain in the federation.[99][100]
A number of communist groups existed in Sarawak, the first of which, the Sarawak Overseas Chinese Democratic Youth League, formed in 1951.[58][note 4] Another group, the North Kalimantan Communist Party (NKCP, also known as Clandestine Communist Organisation (CCO) by government sources) was formally set up in 1970.[101] Weng Min Chyuan andBong Kee Chok were two of the more notable communist leaders involved in the insurgency. As the political scene changed, it grew progressively more difficult for the communists to operate. This led to Bong opening talks with chief ministerAbdul Rahman Ya'kub in 1973 and eventually signing an agreement with the government. Weng, who had moved to China in the mid-1960s but nonetheless retained control of the CCO, pushed for a continued armed insurrection against the government in spite of this agreement. The conflict continued mostly in theRajang Delta region but eventually ended when, on 17 October 1990, the NKCP signed a peace agreement with the Government of Sarawak.[102][103]
The head of the Sarawak state is theYang di-Pertua Negeri (also known as TYT or Governor), a largely symbolic position appointed by theYang di-Pertuan Agong (King of Malaysia) on the advice of the Malaysian federal government.[105] The position has been held byWan Junaidi Tuanku Jaafar since 2024.[106] The TYT appoints thePremier, currently held byAbang Johari Openg (GPS),[107] as thehead of government. Generally, the leader of the party that commands the majority of the state Legislative Assembly is appointed as the chief minister; democratically elected representatives are known as state assemblymen. The state assembly passes laws on subjects that are not under the jurisdiction of theParliament of Malaysia such as land administration, employment, forests, immigration, merchant shipping and fisheries. The state government is constituted by the premier, the cabinet ministers and their deputy ministers.[108]
Because the government of Sarawak controls immigration, foreign nationals entering Sarawak receive an additional entry stamp
To protect the interests of the Sarawakians in the Malaysian federation, special safeguards have been included in theConstitution of Malaysia. These include: control over immigration in and out of the state as well as the residence status of non-Sarawakians and Sabahans, limitations on the practice of law to resident lawyers, independence of the Sarawak High Court from the High Court Peninsular Malaysia, a requirement that the Sarawak Chief Minister be consulted prior to the appointment of the chief judge of the Sarawak High Court, the existence of Native Courts in Sarawak and the power to levy sales tax. Natives in Sarawak enjoy special privileges such as quotas and employment in public service, scholarships, university placements, and business permits.[109] Local governments in Sarawak are exempt from local council laws enacted by the Malaysian parliament.[110] This level of autonomy means Sarawak is sometimes referred to as a "region", to differentiate it from less autonomous states.[111]
Major political parties in Sarawak can be divided into three categories: native Sarawak Bumiputera (PBB and PBM), native Sarawak Dayak (PRS, PDP, PBDSB, etc.), and non-Bumiputera (SUPP, PSB, PBK, etc.); Parties, however, may also include members from more than one group.[112] The first political party, the Sarawak United Peoples' Party (SUPP), was established in 1959, followed by the Parti Negara Sarawak (PANAS) in 1960 and the Sarawak National Party (SNAP) in 1961. Other major political parties such as Parti Pesaka Sarawak (PESAKA) appeared by 1962.[58][note 5] These parties later joined the national coalition of the Alliance Party. The Alliance Party (later regrouped intoBarisan Nasional) has ruled Sarawak since the formation of Malaysia. The opposition in Sarawak has consistently alleged that the ruling coalition uses various types of vote-buying tactics in order to win elections.[113][note 6][114]Stephen Kalong Ningkan was the firstChief Minister of Sarawak from 1963 to 1966 following his landslide victory in local council elections. However, he was ousted in 1966 byTawi Sli with the help of theMalaysian federal government, causing the1966 Sarawak constitutional crisis.[58]
In 1969, thefirst Sarawak state election was held, with members of the Council Negri being directly elected by the voters. This election marked the beginning of ethnicMelanau domination in Sarawak politics byAbdul Rahman Ya'kub and Abdul Taib Mahmud. In the same year, the North Kalimantan Communist Party (NKCP) which subsequently waged a guerrilla war against the newly elected Sarawak state government, was formed. The party was dissolved after the signing of a peace agreement in 1990.[103] 1973 saw the birth ofParti Pesaka Bumiputera Bersatu (PBB) following a merger of several parties.[115] This party would later become the backbone of the Sarawak BN coalition. In 1978, theDemocratic Action Party (DAP) was the first West Malaysia-based party to open its branches in Sarawak.[115] Sarawak originally held state elections together with national parliamentary elections. However, the then chief minister Abdul Rahman Ya'kub delayed the dissolution of the state assembly by a year to prepare for the challenges posed by opposition parties.[113] This made Sarawak the only state in Malaysia to hold state elections separate from the national parliamentary elections since 1979.[116] In 1983, SNAP started to fragment into several splinter parties due to recurrent leadership crises.[117][118] The political climate in the state was stable until the1987 Ming Court Affair, a political coup initiated byAbdul Taib Mahmud's uncle to topple the Taib-led BN coalition. However, the coup was unsuccessful and Taib retained his position as chief minister.[119]
Since the2006 state election, the Democratic Action Party (DAP) has derived the majority of its support from urban centres and became the largest opposition party in Sarawak.[120] In 2010, it formed thePakatan Rakyat coalition withParti Keadilan Rakyat (PKR) andParti Islam Se-Malaysia (PAS); the latter two parties had become active in Sarawak between 1996 and 2001.[121] Sarawak is the only state in Malaysia where West Malaysia-based component parties in the BN coalition, especially theUnited Malays National Organisation (UMNO), have not been active in state politics.[122]
On 12 June 2018, theSarawak Parties Alliance was formed by the BN parties in the state in the aftermath of an historic meeting of party leaders in Kuching, where they decided that in light of the BN defeat in the2018 Malaysian general election and the changing national situation and a new government, the parties will leave the BN altogether.[123] In conjunction with the celebration ofMalaysia Day in 2018 under the new government, Prime MinisterMahathir Mohamad has promised to restore the status of Sarawak (together with Sabah) as an equal partner to Malaya, where all three parties (and then, Singapore) formed Malaysia in accordance to theMalaysia Agreement.[124][125] However, through the process of the proposedamendment to the Constitution of Malaysia in 2019, the bill for the amendment failed to pass following the failure to reach two-thirds majority support (148 votes) in the Parliament with only 138 agreed with the move while 59 abstained from the voting.[126][127] On 14 December 2021, the proposed amendment was passed in theParliament unanimously with 199 votes in favour, and 21 MPs absent from the 6-hour long debate.[128]
Note: Population data for Serian Division not including Siburan subdistrict which was formerly a part of Kuching Division.
On 26 November 2015, it was announced that theKuching Division district of Serian would become Sarawak's 12th division and it had officiated byAdenan Satem at its formal creation on 11 April 2015.[132]
A division is divided into districts, each headed by a district officer, which are in turn divided into sub-districts, each headed by a Sarawak Administrative Officer (SAO). There is also one development officer for each division and district to implement development projects. The state government appoints a headman (known asketua kampung orpenghulu) for each village.[105][129] There are a total of 26 sub-districts in Sarawak all under the jurisdiction of the Sarawak Ministry of Local Government and Community Development.[133] The list of divisions, districts, sub-districts and their local authorities is shown in the table below:[134]
The first paramilitary armed forces in Sarawak, a regiment formed by the Brooke regime in 1862, were known as theSarawak Rangers.[135] The regiment, renowned for its jungle tracking skills, served in the campaign to end the intertribal wars in Sarawak. It also engaged in guerrilla warfare against the Japanese, in theMalayan Emergency (in West Malaysia) and theSarawak Communist Insurgency against the communists. Following the formation of Malaysia, the regiment was absorbed into the Malaysian military forces and is now known as theRoyal Ranger Regiment.[136]
In 1888, Sarawak, together with neighbouringNorth Borneo, and Brunei, becameBritish protectorates, and the responsibility for foreign policy was handed over to the British in exchange for military protection.[70] Since the formation of Malaysia, theMalaysian federal government has been solely responsible for foreign policy and military forces in the country.[137][138]
Several border disputes between Malaysia and its neighbouring countries concern Sarawak. Land and maritime disputes exist with Brunei.[139] In 2009, Malaysian prime ministerAbdullah Ahmad Badawi claimed that in a meeting with Sultan of Brunei, Brunei agreed to drop its claim overLimbang.[140] This was however denied by the second Foreign Minister of BruneiLim Jock Seng, stating the issue was never discussed during the meeting.[141]James Shoal (Betting Serupai) and theLuconia Shoals (Betting Raja Jarum/Patinggi Ali),islands in theSouth China Sea, fall within Sarawak'sexclusive economic zone, but concerns have been raised about Chinese incursions.[142][143][144] There are also several Sarawak–Kalimantan border issues with Indonesia.[145]
The total land area of Sarawak is nearly 124,450 km2 (48,050 sq mi),[7] making up 37.5 per cent of the total area of Malaysia, and lies between the northern latitudes 0° 50′ and 5° and eastern longitudes 109° 36′ and 115° 40′ E.[147] Its 750 km (470 mi) of coastline is interrupted in the north by about 150 km (93 mi) of Bruneian coast.[148] A total of its 45.5 km (28.3 mi) coastline have beeneroding.[149] In 1961, Sarawak including neighbouringSabah, which had been included in theInternational Maritime Organization (IMO) through the participation of the United Kingdom, became joint associate members of the IMO.[150] Sarawak is separated from Kalimantan Borneo by ranges of high hills and mountains that are part of the central mountain range of Borneo. These become loftier to the north, and are highest near the source of the Baram River at the steepMount Batu Lawi andMount Mulu.Mount Murud is the highest point in Sarawak.[148]
Sarawak has atropical geography with anequatorial climate and experiences twomonsoon seasons: a northeast monsoon and a southwest monsoon. The northeast monsoon occurs between November and February, bringing heavy rainfall while the southwest monsoon, which occurs between March and October, brings somewhat less rainfall. The climate is stable throughout the year except for the two monsoons, with average daily temperature varying between 23 °C (73 °F) in the morning to 32 °C (90 °F) in the afternoon at coastal areas.Miri has the lowest average temperatures in comparison to other major towns in Sarawak and has the longest daylight hours (more than six hours a day), while other areas receive sunshine for five to six hours a day. Humidity is usually high, exceeding 68 per cent, with annual rainfall varying between 330 cm (130 in) and 460 cm (180 in) for up to 220 days a year.[147] At highland areas, the temperature can vary from 16 °C (61 °F) to 25 °C (77 °F) during the day and as low as 11 °C (52 °F) during the night.[151]
Sarawak is divided into threeecoregions. The coastal region is rather low-lying and flat with large areas of swamp and other wet environments. Beaches in Sarawak include Pasir Panjang[152] and Damai beaches in Kuching,[153] Tanjung Batu beach in Bintulu,[154] and Tanjung Lobang[155] and Hawaii beaches in Miri.[156] Hilly terrain accounts for much of the inhabited land and is where most of the cities and towns are found. Theports of Kuching andSibu are built some distance from the coast on rivers while Bintulu and Miri are close to the coastline where the hills stretch right to the South China Sea. The third region is the mountainous region along the Sarawak–Kalimantan border, where a number of villages such asBario,Ba'kelalan, andUsun Apau Plieran are located.[148] A number of rivers flow through Sarawak, with theSarawak River being the main river flowing through Kuching. TheRajang River is the longest river in Malaysia, measuring 563 km (350 mi) including its tributary,Balleh River. To the north, the Baram, Limbang and Trusan Rivers drain into theBrunei Bay.[148]
Sarawak can be divided into two geological zones: theSunda Shield, which extends southwest from the Batang Lupar River (nearSri Aman) and forms the southern tip of Sarawak, and thegeosyncline region, which extends northeast to the Batang Lupar River, forming the central and northern regions of Sarawak. The oldest rock type in southern Sarawak isschist formed during theCarboniferous andLower Permian times, while the youngestigneous rock in this region,andesite, can be found atSematan. Geological formation of the central and northern regions started during the lateCretaceous period. Other types of stone that can be found in central and northern Sarawak areshale,sandstone, andchert.[147] The Miri Division in eastern Sarawak is the region ofNeogene strata containing organic rich rock formations which are the prolificoil and gas reserves. The rocks enriched in organic components aremudstones in Lambir, Miri and Tukau Formations ofMiddle Miocene-Lower Pliocene age.[157] Significant quantities of Sarawak soil arelithosols, up to 60 per cent, andpodsols, around 12 per cent, while abundantalluvial soil is found in coastal and riverine regions. 12 per cent of Sarawak is covered withpeat swamp forest.[147]Limestone with well-developedkarst topography and cave systems is found scattered from west to east Sarawak, but concentrated in certain regions such as in the Bau district in the west and southwards near the Kalimantan border.[158]
Sarawak contains large tracts oftropical rainforest with diverse plant species,[168] which has led to a number of them being studied for medicinal properties.[169]Mangrove andnipah forests lining itsestuaries comprise 2% of its forested area, peat swamp forests along other parts of its coastline cover 16%,Kerangas forest covers 5% andDipterocarpaceae forests cover most mountainous areas. The major trees found in estuary forests includebako andnibong, while those in the peat swamp forests includeramin (Gonystylus bancanus),meranti (Shorea), andmedang jongkong (Dactylocladus stenostachys).[147]
An orangutan peeling a banana at Semenggoh Wildlife Reserve.
Animal species are also highly varied, with 185 species of mammals, 530 species of birds, 166 species of snakes, 104 species of lizards, and 113 species of amphibians, of which 19 per cent of the mammals, 6 per cent of the birds, 20 per cent of the snakes and 32 per cent of the lizards areendemic. These species are largely found in Totally Protected Areas. There are over 2,000 tree species in Sarawak. Other plants includes 1,000 species of orchids, 757 species of ferns, and 260 species of palm.[170] The state is the habitat of endangered animals, including theborneo pygmy elephant,proboscis monkey,orangutans andSumatran rhinoceroses.[171] Matang Wildlife Centre, Semenggoh Nature Reserve, andLanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary[172] are noted for their orangutan protection programmes.[173][174] Talang–Satang National Park is notable for its turtle conservation initiatives.[175]Birdwatching is a common activity in various national parks such as Gunung Mulu National Park, Lambir Hills National Park,[176] andSimilajau National Park.[177] Miri–Sibuti National Park is known for its coral reefs[178] and Gunung Gading National Park for itsRafflesia flowers.[179]Bako National Park, the oldest national park in Sarawak, is known for its 275 proboscis monkeys,[180] and Padawan Pitcher Garden for its various carnivorouspitcher plants.[181] In 1854,Alfred Russel Wallace visited Sarawak. A year later, he formulated the "Sarawak Law" which foreshadowed the formulation of his (andDarwin's) theory of evolution bynatural selection three years later.[182]
The Sarawak state government has enacted several laws to protect its forests and endangered wildlife species. Some of the protected species are the orangutan,green sea turtle,flying lemur, andpiping hornbill. Under the Wild Life Protection Ordinance 1998, Sarawak natives are given permissions to hunt for a restricted range of wild animals in the jungles but should not possess more than 5 kg (11 lb) of meat.[183] The Sarawak Forest Department was established in 1919 to conserve forest resources in the state.[184] Following international criticism of thelogging industry in Sarawak, the state government decided to downsize the Sarawak Forest Department and created the Sarawak Forestry Corporation in 1995.[185][186] The Sarawak Biodiversity Centre was set up in 1997 for the conservation, protection, and sustainable development of biodiversity in the state.[187]
Sarawak's rain forests are primarily threatened by the logging industry and palm oil plantations.[188] The issue of human rights of thePenan and deforestation in Sarawak became an international environmental issue when Swiss activistBruno Manser visited Sarawak regularly between 1984 and 2000.[189] Deforestation has affected the life of indigenous tribes, especially the Penan, whose livelihood is heavily dependent on forest produce. This led to several blockades by indigenous tribes during the 1980s and 1990s against logging companies encroaching on their lands.[190] Indeed, illegal logging in particular has decimated the forest regions indigenous populations depend on for their livelihoods, depleting fish, wildlife, but also traditional medicinal herbs and construction staples like Palm.[191] There have also been cases whereNative Customary Rights (NCR) lands have been given to timber and plantation companies without the permission of the locals.[192] The indigenous people have resorted to legal means to reinstate their NCR. In 2001 the High Court of Sarawak fully reinstated the NCR land claimed by the Rumah Nor people, but this was overturned partially in 2005. However, this case has served as a precedent, leading to more NCR being upheld by the high court in the following years.[193][194] Sarawak's mega-dam policies, such as theBakun Dam andMurum Dam projects, have submerged thousands of hectares of forest and displaced thousands of indigenous people.[195][196] Since 2013, the proposedBaram Dam project has been delayed due to ongoing protests from local indigenous tribes.[197] Since 2014, the Sarawak government under chief ministerAdenan Satem started to take action againstillegal logging in the state and to diversify the economy of the state.[198] Through the course of 2016 over 2 million acres of forest, much of it in orangutan habitats, were declared protected areas.[199]
Sources vary as to Sarawak's remaining forest cover: former chief ministerAbdul Taib Mahmud declared that it fell from 70% to 48% between 2011 and 2012, the Sarawak Forest Department and the Ministry of Resource Planning and Environment both held that it remained at 80% in 2012,[200][201] andWetlands International reported that it fell by 10% between 2005 and 2010, 3.5 times faster than the rest of Asia combined.[202]
Historically, Sarawak's economy was stagnant during the rule of previous three white Rajahs. After the formation of Malaysia, Sarawak GDP growth rate has risen due to increase in petroleum output and the rise in global petroleum prices. However, the state economy is less diversified and still heavily dependent upon the export of primary commodities when compared to Malaysia overall. The per capita GDP in Sarawak was lower than the national average from 1970 to 1990.[204] As of 2021, GDP per capita for Sarawak stands at RM 65,971 (US$15,173),[9] which is the third highest in Malaysia. However, the urban-rural income gap remained a major problem in Sarawak.[205]
Sarawak is abundant in natural resources, and primary industries such as mining, agriculture, and forestry accounted for 32.8% of its economy in 2013.[206] It also specialises in the manufacture of food and beverages, wood-based andrattan products, basic metal products, andpetrochemicals,[134] as well as cargo and air services and tourism.[206]The state'sgross domestic product (GDP) grew by 40.5% per year on average from 2010 to 2021,[207] but became very more volatile later on, ranging from −3.0% in 2009 to 35.0% in 2021. Sarawak contributed 9.5% of Malaysia's GDP in the nine years leading up to 2020, making it the third largest contributor afterSelangor andKuala Lumpur.[206] From 2015 to 2021, the oil and gas industry accounted for 55.2% of the Sarawak government's revenue. It attracted RM 80 billion (US$17.85 billion) in foreign investments, with 95% going to theSarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE), the second largesteconomic corridor in Malaysia.[206]
Sarawak has an estimate of 800 million barrels ofproven oil reserves with further are to be discovered based on recent findings.[208] The export-oriented economy is dominated byliquefied natural gas (LNG), which accounts for more than half of total exports. Crude petroleum accounts for 45.1%, while palm oil,sawlogs, andsawn timber account for 12.0% collectively.[206] The state receives a 5%royalty fromPetronas over oil explorations in its territorial waters.[209] Most of the oil and gas deposits are located offshore next to Bintulu and Miri atBalingian basin, Baram basin, and around Luconia Shoals.[210]
Sarawak is one of the world's largest exporters of tropicalhardwood timber, constituting 65% of the total Malaysian log exports in 2000. The lastUnited Nations statistics in 2001 estimated Sarawak's sawlog exports at an average of 14,109,000 m3 (498,300,000 cu ft) per year between 1996 and 2000.[211]
In 1955,OCBC became the first foreign bank to operate in Sarawak, with other overseas banks following suit.[212] Other notable Sarawak-based companies includeCahya Mata Sarawak Berhad, Naim Holdings, andRimbunan Hijau.[213]
Turbines inside the Bakun Dam power house. The dam is the main source forelectric energy in Sarawak.
Electricity in Sarawak, supplied by the state-ownedSarawak Energy Berhad (SEB),[214] is primarily sourced from traditional coal fired power plants andthermal power stations using LNG,[214][215] but diesel based sources and hydroelectricity are also utilised. There are 3 hydroelectric dams as of 2015[update] atBatang Ai,[216] Bakun,[217] and Murum,[218] with several others under construction.[216] In early 2016, SEB signed Malaysia's first energy export deal to supply electricity to neighbouringWest Kalimantan in Indonesia.[219]
In 2008, SCORE was established as a framework to develop the energy sector in the state, specifically the Murum,Baram, and Baleh Dams as well as potential coal-based power plants,[220] and 10high priority industries out to 2030.[221][222] The Regional Corridor Development Authority is the government agency responsible for managing SCORE.[223] The entire central region of Sarawak is covered under SCORE, including areas such as Samalaju (near Bintulu), Tanjung Manis, and Mukah.[224] Samalaju will be developed as an industrial park,[225] with Tanjung Manis as ahalal food hub,[226] and Mukah as the administrative centre for SCORE with a focus on resource-based research and development.[227]
Tourism plays a major role in the economy of Sarawak and contributed 7.9% of the state's GDP in 2016.[228]Foreign visitors to Sarawak are predominantly from Brunei, Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Germany, Australia, Belgium, South Korea, and United Kingdom.[229] A number of different organisations, both state and private, are involved in the promotion of tourism in Sarawak: the Sarawak Tourism Board is the state body responsible for tourism promotion in the state, various private tourism groups are united under the Sarawak Tourism Federation, and the Sarawak Convention Bureau is responsible for attracting conventions, conferences, and corporate events which are held in theBorneo Convention Centre in Kuching.[230] The public and private bodies in Sarawak hold a biannual event to award the Sarawak Hornbill Tourism Award, an award for achievements within various categories, to recognise businesses and individuals for their efforts in the development of tourism within the state.[231]
TheRainforest World Music Festival is the region's primary musical event, attracting more than 50,000 people annually.[232] Other events that are held regularly in Sarawak are the Anugerah Seri Angkasa (ASA), ASEAN International Film Festival,Borneo Music Festival Live,Borneo Jazz Festival,Borneo Cultural Festival, and Borneo International Kite Festival.[230] Major shopping complexes in Sarawak include The Spring, Boulevard, VivaCity, Plaza Merdeka, City One, and AEON shopping malls in Kuching,[233] Bintang Megamall, Boulevard, Imperial Mall, and Miri Plaza shopping malls in Miri[234] and NAIM Bintulu Paragon Street Mall,The Spring, Boulevard Shopping Mall, Crown Pacific Mall, Commerce Square Mall, Times Square Megamall, and Parkcity Mall in Bintulu.
Infrastructure development in Sarawak is overseen by the Ministry of Infrastructure Development and Transportation, successor to the Ministry of Infrastructure Development and Communications (MIDCom) after it was renamed in 2016.[239] Despite this ministerial oversight, infrastructure in Sarawak remains relatively underdeveloped compared toPeninsular Malaysia.[240]
In 2009, 94% of urban Sarawak was supplied with electricity, but only 67% of rural areas had electricity.[241] However, this had increased to 91% by 2014.[242] According to a 2015 article, household internet penetration in Sarawak was lower than Malaysian national average, 41.2% versus 58.6%, with 58.5% of internet use being in urban areas and 29.9% in rural areas. In comparison, mobile telecommunication uptake in Sarawak was comparable to the national average, 93.3% against a national average of 94.2%, and on par with neighbouring Sabah.[243] Mobile telecommunication infrastructure, specifically broadcast towers, are built and managed by SacofaSdnBhd (Sacofa Private Limited), which enjoys a monopoly in Sarawak after the company was granted a 20-year exclusivity deal on the provision, maintenance and leasing of towers in the state.[244]
A number of different bodies manage the supply of water depending on their region of responsibility, including the Kuching Water Board (KWB) which manages Kuching water supply, Sibu Water Board (SWB) which manages Sibu water supply, LAKU Management SdnBhd, which handle water supply in Miri, Bintulu, and Limbang[245] and the Rural Water Supply Department managing the water supply for the remaining areas.[246] As of 2014[update], 82% of the rural areas have a fresh water supply.[242]
Sarawak launched its radio service on 7 June 1954, which became a part of Radio Malaysia when it joined Malaysia in 1963 and later part of the biggerRadio Televisyen Malaysia (RTM) in 1969 when the nation's radio and television operations merged.[247] It did not have television service until 30 August 1975, whenRTM TV1 was made available for East Malaysian viewers.[248] RTM has six branches in the state - a main office in capital city Kuching and five other offices in Simanggang, Sibu, Bintulu, Miri and Limbang. The main office produces news and shows for RTM's television channels and operates four state radio channels, namely Sarawak FM, Red FM and Wai FM Iban and Bidayuh networks, whereas five other offices operate district radio channels such as Sri Aman FM, Sibu FM, Bintulu FM, Miri FM and Limbang FM. On 7 April 1998,NTV7 was launched by Sarawakian businessmanMohd Effendi Norwawi under the ownership of Natseven TV Sdn Bhd. Before its acquisition byMedia Prima Berhad in 2005, it had a studio in the state capital. However, Sarawak didn't have its own true TV station until 10 October 2020, when it launchedTVS, thus becoming the first region in Malaysia to own its TV station. It is currently available inAstro,Astro NJOI andmyFreeview (MYTV Broadcasting) and available in 4 languages: Malay, English, Iban and Chinese (Mandarin). Commercial radio channels based in the state includeCats FM andTEA FM, respectively launched on 8 August 1996 and 1 August 2015.[249][250]
Much like many former British territories, Sarawak uses adual carriageway withthe left-hand traffic rule.[251] As of 2013, Sarawak had a total of 32,091 km (19,940 mi) of connected roadways, with 18,003 km (11,187 mi) being paved state routes, 8,313 km (5,165 mi) of dirt tracks, 4,352 km (2,704 mi) of gravel roads, and 1,424 km (885 mi) of paved federal highway. The primary route in Sarawak is thePan Borneo Highway, which runs from Sematan, Sarawak, through Brunei toTawau, Sabah.[252] Despite being a major highway, the condition of the road is poor leading to numerous accidents and fatalities.[253] 16 billion ringgit worth of contracts were awarded to a number of local companies in December 2016 to add new vehicle and pedestrian bridges, interchanges and bus shelters to the highway as part of a multi-phase project.[254]
Arailway line existed beforeWorld War II, but the last remnants of the line were dismantled in 1959.[255] A rail project was announced in 2008 to be in line with the transport needs of SCORE, but as yet no construction work has begun despite an anticipated completion date in 2015.[256] In 2017, the Sarawak government proposed alight rail system (Kuching Line) connecting Kuching, Samarahan and Serian divisions with anticipated completion in 2020.[257] Currently, buses are the primary mode of public transportation in Sarawak with interstate services connecting the state to Sabah, Brunei, andPontianak (Indonesia).[245]
Sarawak is served by a number of airports withKuching International Airport, located south west of Kuching, being the largest. Flights from Kuching are mainly toKuala Lumpur but also toJohor Bahru,Penang, Sabah, Kelantan, Singapore and Pontianak, Indonesia. A second airport atMiri serves flights primarily to other Malaysian states as well as services to Singapore. Other smaller airports such asSibu Airport,Bintulu Airport,Mukah Airport,Marudi Airport,Mulu Airport, andLimbang Airport provide domestic services within Malaysia. There are also a number of remote airstrips serving rural communities in the state.[252] Three airlines serve flights in Sarawak,Malaysia Airlines,Air Asia, andMASwings all of which use Kuching Airport as their main hub.[258] The state ownedHornbill Skyways is an aviation company that largely provides private chartered flights and flight services for public servants.[259]
Bintulu International Container Terminal (BICT) at Bintulu seaport
Sarawak has four primary ports located at Kuching, Sibu, Bintulu, and Miri.[245] The busiest seaport at Bintulu is under the jurisdiction of the Malaysian federal government and mainly handles LNG products and regular cargo. The remaining ports are under the respective state port authorities. The combined throughput of the four primary ports was 61.04million freight weight tonnes (FWT) in 2013.[252] Sarawak has 55 navigable river networks with a combined length of 3,300 km (2,100 mi). For centuries, the rivers of Sarawak have been a primary means of transport as well as a route for timber and other agricultural goods moving downriver for export at the country's major ports. Sibu port, located 113 km (70 mi) from the river's mouth, is the main hub along the Rajang River mainly handling timber products. However, the throughput of Sibu port has declined over the years after Tanjung Manis Industrial Port (TIMP) began operating further downriver.[252]
Health care in provided by three major government hospitals,Sarawak General Hospital,Sibu Hospital, andMiri Hospital,[260] as well as numerous district hospitals,[261] public health clinics, community clinics, and rural clinics.[262] Sarawak Heart Centre was set up in 2011 inKota Samarahan to provide cardiology services to patients.[263] Besides government-owned hospitals and clinics, there are several private hospitals in Sarawak[264] such as the Normah Medical Specialists Centre, Timberland Medical Specialists Centre,[265] and Sibu Specialist Medical Centre. Hospitals in Sarawak typically provide the full gamut of health care options, from triage to palliative care for the terminally ill. In 1994, Sarawak General Hospital Department of Radiotherapy, Oncology & Palliative Care instituted an at-home care, orhospice care, program for cancer patients. The non profit Sarawak Hospice Society was established in 1998 to promote this program.[266]In comparison to the number of other medical facilities, mental health is only serviced by a single facility, Hospital Sentosa.[267] This abundance of medical services has made Sarawak a medical tourism destination for visitors from neighbouring Brunei and Indonesia.[268]
In comparison to the prevalence of health services in urban regions, much of rural Sarawak is only accessible by river transport, which limits access.[269] Remote rural areas that are beyond the operating areas of health clinics, about 12 km (7.5 mi),[270] and inaccessible by land or river are serviced by a monthly flying doctor service, which was established in 1973.[271]A village health promoter program, where volunteers are provided with basic medical training, was established in 1981 but difficulty in providing medical supplies to remote villages, as well as a lack of incentive, resulted in a decline of the program.[272] A variety of traditional medicine practices are still being used by the various communities in Sarawak to supplement modern medical practices but this practice is also declining.[273] However, since 2004, there has been a resurgence in traditional medicine in Malaysia resulting in the establishment of a traditional medicine division within the Ministry of Health. A 2006 government program to have integrated hospitals led to numerous universities starting programs to teach traditional medicine and major hospitals, including Sarawak General Hospital, providing traditional therapies.[274]
Education in Malaysia falls under the remit of two federal ministries; theMalaysian Ministry of Education is responsible for primary and secondary education,[275] while theMinistry of Higher Education has oversight over public universities, polytechnic and community colleges.[276] Early childhood education is not directly controlled by the Ministry of Education as it does with primary and secondary education. However, the ministry does oversee the licensing of private kindergartens, the main form of early childhood education, in accordance with the National Pre-School Quality Standard, which was launched in 2013.[277]
Around the time of Federation, overall literacy in Sarawak was quite low. In 1960, the overall literacy rate was 25%, with a heavy slant in the literacy rate towards the Chinese population, 53%, compared with that of indigenous peoples which was substantially lower, only 17%.[278] By 2007, overall literacy in adults aged 15 and over had significantly increased to 92.3% and in 2012, this had climbed to 96%.[279]
There were 1480 schools in Sarawak in 2014, of which 1271 were primary, 202 were secondary and 7 were vocational/technical secondary schools.[280] Among these are a number of schools that date from the Brooke era, includingSt. Thomas's School Kuching (1848), St Mary's School Kuching (1848), and St Joseph's School Kuching (1882).[281] As well as government schools, there are four international schools: Tunku Putra School, a primary and secondary school offering national and Cambridge curricula, Lodge International School, which is also open to local students and uses both the British National and Cambridge systems, Kidurong International School, which is owned byShell and offers primary education mainly to children of employees but local children may enter depending on space availability, and Tenby International School, which opened in 2014 and is open to both local and expatriate children.[282] There are also 14Chinese independent secondary schools in Sarawak that teach in Chinese rather than English or Malay.[283] Previously, only Chinese students were enrolled in these schools, but mobility of the workforce has led to increasing turnover of students as parents move to other areas for employment.[284][285] This has led to an increasing number ofBumiputera students being enrolled in Chinese primary and preschools.[286]
With the establishment of SCORE and the associated potential of 1.6 million more jobs by 2030,[282] the state government allocated RM1 billion from 2016 to 2020 to a Skills Development Fund for vocational education.[287] In 2015,Petronas provided vocational scholarships to 150 underprivileged Sarawak students as part of its Vocational Institution Sponsorship and Training Assistance program,[288] although it had been criticised for under-representing local students in its previous allocations;[289] the company also provided support to other Sarawak vocational education centres.[290]
The 2020 census of Malaysia reported a population of 2,453,677 in Sarawak,[8] making it the fifth most populous state.[291] However, this population is distributed over a large area resulting in Sarawak having the lowest population density in the country with only 20people per km2. The average population growth rate of 1.8%, from 2000 to 2010, is very close to the national average of 2.0%.[134] In 2014, 58% of the population resided in urban areas with the remainder in rural areas, but over the next 10 years it is predicted that the urban population would rise to 65%.[292] As of 2011[update], thecrude birth rate in Sarawak was 16.3 per 1000 individuals, thecrude death rate was 4.3 per 1000 population, and theinfant mortality rate was 6.5 per 1000 live births.[293]
Urban populations consist predominantly ofMalays, Melanaus,Chinese, and a small population of urban Ibans andBidayuhs who migrated from their home villages seeking employment.[294] The latter two are among the more than 40sub-ethnic groups of Sarawak, many of whom still inhabit remote areas and are referred to asOrang Asal.[295] The Orang Asal, and Malays, of Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak and Sabah are referred to collectively asBumiputera (son of the soil). This classification grants them special privileges in education, jobs, finance, and political positions.[296]
The registration for, and issuing of, national identity cards, a legally required document for accessing various services, to these remote tribes has been problematic for many years,[297] and in the past had even resulted in a large number of people from the Penan ethnic group being rendered effectively stateless.[298] In recent years, this issue has seen progressive improvement with the implementation of systems such as mobile registration units.[299]
Sarawak has a large immigrant work force with as many as 150,000 registered foreign migrant workers working as domestic workers or in plantation, manufacturing, construction, services and agriculture.[300] However, this population of legally registered workers is overshadowed by a large population of between 320,000 and 350,000 illegal workers.[301]
Sarawakian Chinese woman in her traditional dress of Cheongsam
Sarawak has six major ethnic groups,Iban,Chinese,Malay,Bidayuh,Melanau, andOrang Ulu,[294] as well as a number of ethnic groups with smaller but still substantial populations, such as theKedayan,Javanese,Bugis,Murut, andIndian.[302] In 2015, the Bidayuh and Iban, both indigenous ethnic groups of Sarawak, were officially recognised by the government of Malaysia as comprising theDayak people.[303] There are more than 50 tribes still existing or extinct in Sarawak but only the major tribes are listed in the Malaysian Federal Constitution.[304]
The population of 1,389,926 of theIban people in Sarawak, based on 2022 statistics, makes it the largest ethnic group in the state.[291] The Iban were, in the past, a society that paid particular attention to social status, especially to those who displayed martial prowess as well as to those who demonstrated expertise in various fields such as farming and oratory. Specific terms were used to refer to those who belonged to particular social strata, such as theraja berani (rich and the brave),orang mayuh (ordinary people), andulun (slaves).[305] Despite modern influences, Iban still observe many of their traditional rituals such as Gawai Antu (festival of the dead) andGawai Dayak (Harvest Festival).[306]
Although the presence of Chinese in Sarawak dates back to the 6th century AD when traders first came to the state, theChinese population today largely consists of communities originating from immigrants during the Brooke era.[148] This migration was driven by the employment opportunities at gold mines in Bau.Sarawak Chinese are primarily Buddhist and Christian,[307] and speak a multitude of southern Chinese languages:Cantonese,Fuzhou,Hakka,Hokkien,Teochew, and Henghua (Putian people), in addition to Mandarin. They celebrate major cultural festivals such asHungry Ghost Festival and theChinese New Year much as their ancestors did.[308] Chinese settlers in Sarawak were not limited to any one area. Those who settled in Kuching did so near the Sarawak River in an area that is now referred to asChinatown.[309] Fuzhounese immigrants fromFuzhou,Fujian, led byWong Nai Siong in 1901, settled along the Rajang River in what is nowSibu, as due toBoxer Rebellion,[310] while those who arrived in Miri sought work in the coal mines and oilfields.[309]
During the Brooke era,Sarawak Malays were predominantly fishermen,[308] leading to their villages being concentrated along river banks. However, with the advent of urban development, many Malays have migrated to seek employment in public and private sectors. Traditionally, they are known for their silver and brass crafts, wood carvings, and textiles.[148][311]
TheMelanau are a native people of Sarawak that lived in areas primarily around the modern city of Mukah, where they worked as fishermen and craftsmen as well renowned boatbuilders. Historically the Melanau practisedAnimism, a belief that spirits inhabited objects in their environment, and while this is still practised today, most Melanau have since been converted to Christianity and Islam.[148][98][note 7][312]
TheBidayuh are a southern Sarawak people,[313] that were referred to by early European settlers as Land Dayaks because they traditionally live on steep limestone mountains.[314] They account for 7.3 per cent of the population of Sarawak and are the second most numerous of the indigenous Dayak people, after the Iban. The Bidayuh are indigenous to the areas that comprise the modern day divisions of Kuching and Serian. Their language comprises five major dialects:Biatah (Padawan, Penrissen and Kuching areas), Bau, formerly known asJagoi or Bau-Jagoi (Bau district), Serian, formerly calledBukar-Sadong (Seriandistrict), and Salako and Rara (Lundu district). All these dialects are not mutually intelligibledue to insufficientlexicostatistical overlap between them for developing one standardBidayuh with a unifiedorthography.[315] Since there is no common standardised Bidayuh language, thesociolinguistic norms of the younger generation of Bidayuhs today are influenced byMalaysian language, with bothEnglish andSarawak Malay also being thelingua franca.[316] Like many other indigenous peoples, the majority of the Bidayuh have been converted to Christianity,[148]but still live in villages consisting of longhouses, with the addition of the distinctive roundbaruk where communal gatherings were held.[148]
The numerous tribes who reside in Sarawak's interior such as the Kenyah, Kayan,Lun Bawang,Kelabit, Penan,Bisaya, and Berawan are collectively referred to asOrang Ulu. In theIban language, this name means "Upriver People", reflecting the location these tribes settled in;[148] most of them reside near the drainage basin of the Baram River.[317] Both woodworking and artistry are highly visible aspects of Orang Ulu culture exemplified by mural covered longhouses, carved wooden boats, and tattooing.[148] Well-known musical instruments from the Orang Ulu are the Kayans'sapeh and Kenyah's sampe' and Lun Bawang's bamboo band.[317] The Kelabit and Lun Bawang people are known for their production of fragrant rice.[318][317] As with the many other indigenous peoples of Sarawak, the majority of Orang Ulu are Christians.[148]
The Indians, predominantly theTamils were brought by the British Government to work in estates as labourers and clerks.[319] Besides, theMalayalee community too exist in the cities in Sarawak.[320] Today, many among the Indians are known to be employed as professionals (mainly doctors) in Sarawak.[321]
English was the official language of Sarawak from 1963 to 1974 due to opposition from First Chief Minister of Sarawak Stephen Kalong Ningkan to the use of theMalaysian language in Sarawak.[322] In 1974, the new Chief Minister Abdul Rahman Ya'kub recognisedMalay alongside English as an official language of Sarawak.[113][note 8] This new status given to the Malay language was further reinforced by new education standards transitioning curriculum to Malay.[323] In 1985 English lost the status of an official language, leaving only Malay.[322][note 9] Despite official policy, Sarawak opposition members argue that English remained thede facto official language of Sarawak.[324] English is still spoken in the legal courts, and state legislative assembly.[325][326] In 2015, Chief Minister Adenan Satem reinstated English as an official language.[327][328][329] Sarawak's language autonomy does not extend to the educational system, with the language syllabus controlled by the federal government.[330]
Although the official form of Malay,Bahasa Malaysia, is spoken by the government administration, it is used infrequently in colloquial conversation. The local dialect ofBahasa Sarawak (Sarawak Malay) dominates the vernacular. Bahasa Sarawak is the most common language of Sarawak Malays and other indigenous tribes. The Iban language, which has minor regional variations, is the most widely spoken native language, with 60 per cent of the Sarawak population speaking it as a first language. The Bidayuh language, with six major dialects, is spoken by 10 per cent of the population. The Orang Ulu have about 30 different language dialects. While the ethnic Chinese originate from a variety of backgrounds and speak many different Southern Chinese languages such as Cantonese, Hokkien, Hakka, Fuzhou, and Teochew, they also converse inMalaysian Mandarin.[331]Tamil language is spoken by the Indians in Sarawak.[319]
Although Islam is the official religion of Malaysia, Sarawak has no official state religion.[340] However, during the chieftainship of Abdul Rahman Ya'kub, the Constitution of Sarawak was amended to make the Yang di-Pertuan Agong the head of Islam in Sarawak and empower the state assembly to pass laws regarding Islamic affairs. With such provisions, Islamic policies can be formulated in Sarawak and the establishment of Islamic state agencies is possible. The 1978 Majlis Islam Bill enabled the setting up ofSyariah Courts in Sarawak with jurisdictions over matrimonial, child custody,betrothal, inheritance, and criminal cases in the state. An appeals court and Courts of Kadi were also formed.[113][note 10]
The location and history of Sarawak has resulted in a broad diversity of ethnicity, culture and languages. Among the indigenous peoples of Sarawak, outside influences have led to many changes over time. The Iban tribal culture in Sarawak centred on the concept of the warrior and the ability to take heads from other tribes in battle. This practice, central as it was to the Iban people, was made illegal under James Brooke's rule and ultimately faded away although reminders of the practice are still seen in some long houses.[341] Two other tribal peoples of the Sarawak Highlands, the Kelabit and Lun Bawang, have seen fundamental changes to their ethnic identities as a direct result of their conversion to Christianity. One major change was the shift in the focal point of their social interactions from the traditional long house to the local church. Their religious devotion has also helped shape their worldview outside of their village, particularly in response to change.[342] For thePenan people, one of the last tribes to still be practising a nomadic lifestyle within the jungle, outside influence, particularly education, has resulted in a significant decline in the population that practice the nomadic lifestyle.[343] Others settle down after intermixing with members of different tribes, such as the Orang Ulu.[344] One direct result of this diversity in cultures, engendered by a policy of tolerance to all races, is the increasing numbers of tribal peoples marrying not only other Sarawakian tribes, but also to Chinese, Malays as well as citizens of European or American descent.[345]
The indigenous tribes of Sarawak traditionally used oratory to pass on their culture from one generation to the next;[346][note 11] examples of these traditional practices include the Iban'sNgajat dances,[347]Renong (Iban vocal repertory),[348]Ensera (Iban oral narratives),[322][note 12] and epic storytelling by the Kayan and Kenyah.[349][350]
Ngajat, the Iban warrior dance gazetted as part of Sarawak culture
In the years before federation, the colonial government recognised that British education and indigenous culture was influencing a new generation of Iban teachers. Thus, on 15 September 1958, theBorneo Literature Bureau was inaugurated with a charter to nurture and encourage local literature while also supporting the government in its release of documentation, particularly in technical and instructional manuscripts that were to be distributed to the indigenous peoples of Sarawak and Sabah. As well as indigenous languages, documents would also be published in English, Chinese and Malay. In 1977, the bureau came under the authority of the federal government language planning and development agency, theDewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (DBP), which advocated publication only in Malay ultimately causing the demise of fledgling indigenous literature.[322][note 13]
It was a number of decades before print media began to appear in Sarawak. TheSarawak Gazette, published by the Brooke government, recorded a variety of news relating to economics, agriculture, anthropology, archaeology, began circulation in 1870 and continues in modern times.[351]However, in the decades following federation, restrictive laws and connections to businesses have meant that the media is a largely state-owned enterprise.[322][note 14] One of the earliest known text publications in Borneo,Hikayat Panglima Nikosa (Story of Nikosa the Warrior), was first printed in Kuching, 1876.[352]
There are a number of museums in Sarawak that preserve and maintain artefacts of Sarawak's culture. At the foot of Mount Santubong, Kuching, is Sarawak Cultural Village, a "living museum" that showcases the various ethnic groups carrying out traditional activities in their respective traditional houses.[353][354] TheSarawak State Museum houses a collection of artefacts such as pottery, textiles, and woodcarving tools from various ethnic tribes in Sarawak, as well as ethnographic materials of local cultures.[355] Orang Ulu'ssapeh (a dug-out guitar) is the best known traditional musical instrument in Sarawak and was played for QueenElizabeth II during her official visit to Sarawak in 1972.[356]
Sarawak being home to diverse communities, has a variety of ethnically influenced cuisines and cooking styles rarely found elsewhere in Malaysia. Notable dishes in the state include Sarawaklaksa,[357]kolo mee,[358] andayam pansuh.[359][360] The state is also known for itsSarawak layer cake dessert.[361]
A number of international films, documentaries, television series had made Sarawak as aprincipal photography location, withFarewell to the King (1989),The Sleeping Dictionary (2003), andEdge of the World (2021) being most notable.[362][363] Among the first locally produced movies were the Iban language filmBejalai that was featured in the Berlin Film Festival in 1989 and the horror filmPossessed screened in 2006.[362]
Sarawakians observe a number of holidays and festivals throughout the year.[364] Apart from nationalIndependence Day andMalaysia Day celebrations, the state also celebrates itsIndependence Day on 22 July and the State Governor's birthday.[365][366][367] Ethnic groups also celebrate their own festivals. The open house tradition allows other ethnic groups to join in the celebrations.[368] Sarawak is the only state in Malaysia to declare the Gawai Dayak celebration a public holiday.[369]
Sarawak sent its own teams to participate in the1958 and1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games,[370] and1962 Asian Games; after 1963, Sarawakians competed as part of the Malaysian team.[371][372] Sarawak hosted the MalaysianSUKMA Games in 1990, 2016 and 2024,[373] and was overall champion in the 1990, 1992, 1994 and 2024 SUKMA games.[374][375] It also hosted the Para SUKMA Games in 1996, 2016 and 2024, and was overall champion for 13 consecutive editions from 1994 until 2018, before losing the title to Sabah in the 2022 edition and regained it in the 2024 edition.[376][377] In 2019, both Sabah and Sarawak Sports Ministries work together to establish the East Malaysia Sports Commission to facilitate the organisation of more sports programmes in the two territories including other places in the Borneo islands.[378] The Sarawak government also plans to make Sarawak ane-sports hub in the region.[379]
^Ooi, 2013. Rajah aborgated his absolute powers...(page 103)
^Ooi, 2013. This denial of entry to Anthony ... (page 93) ... The anti-cession movement was by the early 1950s effectively "strangled" a dead letter.(page 98)
^Faisal, 2012 ... to make Bahasa Malaysia and English asnegeri's official languages. (page 84)
^Postill, 2006 ... Malay was accepted as the official language of Sarawak alongside English until 1985, when English was finally dropped. (page 64)
^Faisal, 2012. Negri is empowered to make provisions for regulating Islamic affairs... (page 86)
^Pandian, 2014. it became the primary means of passing culture, history, and valued traditions. ... in the fact that oral literature is actualised only in performances; (page 95)
^Postill, 2006. ... four were oral narratives ... (page 51)
^Postill, 2006; ... to encourage local authorship and meet local needs ... (page 51) ... The Bureau ceased to exist in 1977 when it was taken over by the federal body Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.(page 55) ... He concludes that DBP cannot publish books in regional languages (pages 59 and 60)
^Postill, 2006. ... the government controls virtually all newspapers in Sarawak (page 76)
^"Niah Cave".humanorigins.si.edu. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. 30 January 2010. Archived fromthe original on 22 November 2013. Retrieved23 March 2015.
^"Naskah Nagarakretagama" (in Indonesian). Perpustakaan Nasional Republik Indonesia. Archived fromthe original on 23 May 2017. Retrieved13 October 2014.
^Broek, Jan O.M. (1962). "Place Names in 16th and 17th Century Borneo".Imago Mundi.16 (1): 134.doi:10.1080/03085696208592208.JSTOR1150309.Carena (for Carena), deep in the bight, refers to Sarawak, the Kuching area, where there is clear archaeological evidence of an ancient trade center just inland from Santubong.
^Ib Larsen (2012). "The First Sultan of Sarawak and His Links to Brunei and the Sambas Dynasty, 1599-1826: A Little-known Pre-Brooke History".Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.85 (2). Project MUSE:1–16.CiteSeerX10.1.1.692.3022.doi:10.1353/ras.2012.0006.S2CID161325104.
^abCharles, de Ledesma; Mark, Lewis; Pauline, Savage (2003).Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei.Rough Guides. p. 723.ISBN978-1-84353-094-7. Retrieved2 November 2015.In 1888, the three states of Sarawak, Sabah, and Brunei were transformed into protectorates, a status which handed over the responsibility for their foreign policy to the British in exchange for military protection.
^"The London Gazette". No. 37637. Her Majesty's Stationery Office. 2 July 1946. p. 3394. Retrieved19 July 2022.
^"Sarawak (Act of Cession)".Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). London. 22 May 1946. Retrieved22 April 2022.The Council Negri passed the Cession Bill on 16th and 17th May, and the Supreme Council authorised the Rajah to execute the instrument of Cession on 20th May." "The voting in the Council Negri on the Cession Bill was 18 for, 16 against on the second reading, and 19 for and 16 against on the third reading.
^abc"About Sarawak – Governance".Official website of State Planning Unit – Chief Minister's Department of Sarawak. Archived fromthe original on 13 September 2013. Retrieved14 November 2015.
^Cheng, Lian (7 April 2013)."Why Sarawak is electorally unique".The Borneo Post. Archived fromthe original on 23 June 2015. Retrieved12 January 2016.For this reason, Sarawak held its state and parliamentary elections separately – and has been adhering to the practice since 1979 whereas all the other states still hold the two elections concurrently (see Table).
^"Kod Dan Nama Sempadan Pentadbiran Tanah" [Land Administration Boundary Code And Name](PDF) (in Malay). Centre for Geospatial Data Infrastructure, Ministry of Water, Land and Natural Resources of Malaysia. 2011. pp. 1–64. Retrieved8 August 2020.
^"Organisation Structure".Official Website of Ministry of Local Government and Community Development. Archived fromthe original on 7 September 2014. Retrieved14 November 2015.
^abcde"Geography of Sarawak".Official website of state planning unit Chief Minister's Department of Sarawak. Archived fromthe original on 23 April 2015. Retrieved14 November 2015.
^Ir. Ooi Choon Ann (1996)."Coastal erosion management in Malaysia"(PDF).Director of Coastal Engineering Division Department of Irrigation and Drainage of Malaysia, Proc. 13th Annual Seminar of the Malaysian Society of Marine Sciences: 9 (10). Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 14 October 2019. Retrieved14 October 2019 – via Department of Irrigation and Drainage, Ministry of Water, Land and Natural Resources of Malaysia.
^"Borneo plants". World Wide Fund for Nature. Archived fromthe original on 25 April 2016. Retrieved2 December 2016.
^"Medicinal plants around us".The Malaysian Nature Society. The Borneo Post. 24 August 2014. Archived fromthe original on 30 August 2014. Retrieved16 November 2015.
^"History". Official website of Forest Department Sarawak. Archived fromthe original on 19 November 2016. Retrieved16 November 2015.Mr. J.P. Mead became the first Conservator of Forests, Sarawak Forest Department, in 1919. The objectives of the Department were to manage and conserve the State's forest resources.
^"Sarawak, Malaysia".International Rivers. Retrieved17 November 2015.Work on access roads to the dam site began but came to a halt in October 2013 when local communities launched two blockades to stop construction and other project preparations from proceeding.
^"Oil & Gas Industry".Regional Corridor Development Authority (RECODA).Archived from the original on 10 February 2025. Retrieved11 February 2025.
^Desmond, Davidson (6 August 2015)."Adenan pledges to keep fighting for 20% oil royalty".The Malaysian Insider. Archived fromthe original on 12 August 2015. Retrieved19 November 2015.Sarawak Chief Minister Tan Sri Adenan Satem today admitted the oil and gas royalty negotiations – for a hike of 15% from 5% to 20% – with Petronas and Putrajaya have ended in deadlock, but has vowed to fight for it "as long as I'm alive".
^Rasoul, Sorkhabi (2012)."Borneo's Petroleum Plays".GEO Ex Pro. Vol. 9, no. 4. Archived fromthe original on 21 November 2015. Retrieved20 November 2015.A simplified map showing the distribution of major sedimentary basins onshore and offshore Borneo.
^Christopher, Lindom (11 July 2015)."Making HEPs in Sarawak safe". New Sarawak Tribune. Archived fromthe original on 23 November 2015. Retrieved23 November 2015.... Murum HEP had officially started commercial operation on 8 June 2015,"...
^abAlexandra, Lorna; Doreen, Ling (9 October 2015)."Infrastructure crucial to state's goals". New Sarawak Tribune. Archived fromthe original on 16 December 2015. Retrieved16 December 2015."In 2014, 82% of houses located in Sarawak rural areas have access to water supply in comparison to 59% in 2009." Fadillah also said that the rural electricity coverage had improved over the last few years with 91% of the households in Sarawak having access to electricity in 2014 compared to 67% in 2009.
^Thiessen, Tamara (2012).Borneo:Sabah, Brunei, Sarawak.Bradt Travel Guides. p. 98.ISBN978-1-84162-390-0. Retrieved26 January 2016.All major roads are dual carriageways; there are no multi-lane expressways. In Malaysia, you drive on the left-hand side of the road and cars are right-hand drive.
^"Alternative pathways to overcome the lack of specialists in Sarawak".The Borneo Post. 15 November 2014. Retrieved19 December 2015.Dr Jerip said there were currently 248 specialists distributed among the major hospitals in the state, comprising the Sarawak General Hospital, Sibu Hospital and Miri Hospital, as well as several divisional hospitals.
^"Sarawak makes efforts to boost access to health care". Oxford Business Group. 23 April 2015. Retrieved19 December 2015.Sarawak's 221 public health clinics include only seven rural clinics. Services for the poor are also provided at community clinics, where assistant medical officers provide basic health care, but again, these clinics – of which the state has 18 – have historically been located mainly in urban areas.
^"About Us". Sarawak Heart Centre. Archived fromthe original on 16 June 2021. Retrieved29 March 2023.
^Ariff, K.M; Teng, CL (2002). "Rural health care in Malaysia".Australian Journal of Rural Health.10 (2):99–103.doi:10.1046/j.1440-1584.2002.00456.x.PMID12047504.The FDS in Sarawak was launched in 1973 to provide healthcare to communities residing outside the 'extended operational area' limits of the health centre (beyond 12 km).
^Abuduli, Maihebureti; Ezat, Sharifa; Aljunid, Syed (2011)."Role of traditional and complementary medicine in universal coverage"(PDF).Malaysian Journal of Public Health Medicine.11 (2): 1. Retrieved30 March 2016.There are nine integrated public hospitals which are practicing T&CM in Malaysia. ... Sarawak General Hospital ... These hospitals practice traditional Malay massage, acupuncture, herbal oncology and postnatal massage.
^ab"Education". Official Website of the Sarawak Government. Archived fromthe original on 7 September 2015. Retrieved21 December 2015.
^Edgar, Ong (10 April 2015)."Can you blame Sarawak and Sabah for feeling left out?". The Ant Daily. Archived fromthe original on 15 June 2015. Retrieved21 December 2015.The eight schools missing from the incomplete list are St. Thomas's School Kuching (1848), St Mary's School Kuching (1848), St Joseph's School Kuching (1882), St Teresa's School Kuching (1885), St Michael's School Sandakan (1886), St Michael's School Penampang (1888), All Saints' School, Likas (1903) and St Patrick's School Tawau (1917).
^Yes, Sarawak (23 May 2015)."The growth of Technical Vocational Education and Training in Sarawak".The Borneo Post online. Retrieved5 April 2017.Under the 11th Malaysia Plan from 2016 to 2020, the government has allocated RM1 billion for a Skills Development Fund to enable more students to receive skills and vocational education.
^Ting, Su Hie; Rose, Louis (June 2014)."Ethnic Language Use and Ethnic Identity for Sarawak Indigenous Groups in Malaysia".Oceanic Linguistics.53 (1):92–109.doi:10.1353/ol.2014.0002.S2CID144213737. Archived fromthe original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved30 November 2015.In Malaysia, Bumiputera (literally translated as 'prince of the earth' or 'son of the land') refers to the Malay and other indigenous people. ... The Bumiputera in general enjoy special privileges as part of the affirmative action for advancement of the community, and these include priority in university entry, scholarships, and government jobs, special finance schemes, and political positions.
^John, Barwick."Huang Naishang (1844–1924)". Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Christianity. Archived fromthe original on 18 May 2013. Retrieved21 July 2015.Shortly thereafter, Huang decided to start a new settlement of Chinese in Malaysia in order to escape China's despotism and Fujian's poverty. ... In 1901, Huang traveled with settlers from Fujian to Sibu, where he founded New Fuzhou.
^"My Constitution – Sabah and Sarawak".Malaysian Bar. Archived fromthe original on 14 February 2012. Retrieved13 November 2015.English was the official language of the State Legislative Assemblies and Courts in Sabah and Sarawak on Malaysia Day, 16 September 1963. Any change of the official language to Bahasa Melayu can only become effective when the State Legislative Assembly of Sabah or Sarawak agrees to adopt federal laws that make Bahasa Melayu the official language.
^"Explanation sought on real status of S'wak's official religion".The Borneo Post. 12 December 2015. Retrieved11 December 2015.The Sarawak State Constitution is clear—Sarawak has no official religion, but the official website stated otherwise. This matter was pointed out by YBBaru Bian (Ba Kelalan assemblyman and state PKR chairman) in his letter to the state secretary in July this year, and no action was taken.
^Metom, Lily (31 January 2013).Emotion Concepts of the Ibans in Sarawak. Patridge Singapore. p. 22.ISBN978-1-4828-9731-9. Retrieved12 January 2016.Nevertheless, all these ancient customs pertaining to headhunting are no longer observed in these modern days.
^MacDonald, M.R. (16 December 2013)."The tradition of storytelling in Malaysia".Traditional Storytelling Today: An International Sourcebook. Routledge. p. 208.ISBN978-1-135-91721-0. Retrieved1 January 2016.The Kayan and the Kenyah, who dwell in the upper region of Sarawak, have a vibrant epic-telling tradition that is elaborate and specialised.
^"Sarawak Cultural Village".The official travel website for Sarawak, Malaysia Borneo. Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived fromthe original on 26 December 2015. Retrieved26 December 2015.
^Ringgit, Danielle Sendou (26 August 2015)."From dreams into the mainstream".The Borneo Post. Archived fromthe original on 31 December 2015. Retrieved31 December 2015.Aside from that, the late Tusau Padan performed for Queen Elizabeth during her official visit to Sarawak in 1972, ...
^"Sister Provinces (Sarawak, Malaysia)". Foreign Affairs Office of the People's Government of Fujian Province, China. 30 January 2018. Archived fromthe original on 27 September 2019. Retrieved27 September 2019.
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