| Santa | |
|---|---|
| Dongxiang | |
| Dunxian kielen,Sarta kelen[citation needed] | |
| Native to | China |
| Region | Gansu (mainlyLinxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture) andXinjiang (Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture)[1] |
Native speakers | 200,000 (2007)[2] |
| Arabic,Latin | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | sce |
| Glottolog | dong1285 |
| ELP | Dongxiang |
 Santa is classified as Vulnerable by theUNESCOAtlas of the World's Languages in Danger | |
TheSanta language, also known asDongxiang (simplified Chinese:东乡语;traditional Chinese:東鄉語;pinyin:Dōngxiāngyǔ), is aMongolic language spoken by theDongxiang people inNorthwest China.
There are no dialects in strict sense,[clarification needed] but three local varieties (tuyu) can be found: Suonanba (ca. 50% of all Dongxiang speakers), Wangjiaji (ca. 30% of all Dongxiang speakers) and Sijiaji (ca. 20% of all Dongxiang speakers).
Compared to other Mongolic languages, there is novowel harmony, except for a handful of suffixes. However, the rules governing this phenomenon are by far not as strict as those ofMongolian.[3]
Santa has 29 consonants:[4]
| Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | plain | p | t | k | q | |||
| aspirated | pʰ | tʰ | kʰ | qʰ | ||||
| Fricative | voiceless | f | s | ʂ | ɕ | x | h | |
| voiced | (ʐ) | ʁ | ||||||
| Affricate | plain | (t͡s) | t͡ʂ | t͡ɕ | ||||
| aspirated | (t͡sʰ) | t͡ʂʰ | t͡ɕʰ | |||||
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ | |||||
| Approximant | w | l | j | |||||
| Trill | r | |||||||
Dongxiang has 7 vowels.[4] Unlike other neighboring Mongolic languages, it has limitedvowel harmony and no distinctions ofvowel length.[3]
| Front | Central | Back | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plain | rhotacised | unrounded | rounded | ||
| Close | i | ɯ | u | ||
| Mid | ə | ɚ | o | ||
| Open | ɑ | ||||
Although true diphthongal sequences (i.e. complex vowel combinations) do not exist in Santa, combinations with the vowels/u,ə,ɑ/ and theglides/j,w/ do.[18] The glides are phonetically realized as non-syllabic vowels[i̯,u̯] and the vowels have the following phonetic realizations below, regardless of any previous allophonic rules as mentioned above.[19]
| Vowel + Glide | Glide + Vowel | Additional | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| /j/ | /w/ | ||||
| /u/ | /j/ | — | /ju/ | — | — |
| /w/ | — | — | — | — | |
| /ə/ | /j/ | /əj/ | /jə/ | — | — |
| /w/ | /əw/ | — | /wəj/ | — | |
| /ɑ/ | /j/ | /ɑj/ | /jɑ/ | — | /jɑw/ |
| /w/ | /ɑw/ | /wɑ/ | /wɑj/ | — | |
Distinct phonetic vowel realizations (note that vowels in other environments take thecardinal form):
The general syllable template for Santa is (C)(G)V(G/N), where the brackets represent optional phonemes. C represents any consonant apart from/ŋ/ or a glide, G is one of the glides/j,w/, V is a vowel and G/N is either a glide or a nasal/n,ŋ/ (occasionally also/r/).[25] However, there are further constraints to this scheme:
The majority of words in Santa are stressed on the final syllable. Examples includeyawu/jɑˈwu/ (to walk),funiegvan/funjəˈʁɑŋ/ (fox) andagven/ɑˈʁəŋ/ (village). Stress also shifts to the suffix when added to a word:funiegvan-ni/funjəʁɑŋˈni/ (fox, genitive case),agven-de/ɑʁəŋˈdə/ (village, locative case).[29]
However, several exceptions to this rule exist:
In Chinese loanwords, stress is not predictable; this is likely due to the tonal influence from the original pronunciation. However, these tones are based on the dialects of theHui people rather than thestandard dialect. Examples of non-final stress includehushi/ˈxuʂi/ (nurse; from护士hùshì),daozi/ˈdɑwt͡si/ (rice paddy; from稻子dàozi) anddadou/ˈdɑdəw/ (soybean; from大豆dàdòu).Minimal pairs, though uncommon, also exist. One example isshizi/ˈʂit͡si/ (persimmon; from柿子shìzi) andshizi/ʂiˈt͡si/ (lion; from狮子shīzi).[31]
There are a number of Arabic loanwords which also violate ultimate stress; these includeaghili/ˈɑqili/ (wisdom; fromعَقِيْلʿaqīl),mehheri/ˈməhəri/ (dowry; fromمَهْرmahr),ghalebu/qɑˈləbu/ (body, form; fromقَالَبqālab), etc.[32]
Some words with unknown origin may also stress on other syllables, includingtonghori/ˈtʰoŋqori/ (wild goose),dawala/ˈtɑwɑlɑ/ (urinary bladder) andbawa/ˈpɑwɑ/ (great-grandfather).[32]
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~oni,
sheep,
eoni-la
sheep(s)
~oni, eoni-la
sheep, sheep(s)
o~in,
girl,
o~in-sla
girls
o~in, o~in-sla
girl, girls
gajieiau
brother,
gajieiau-pi
brothers
gajieiau gajieiau-pi
brother, brothers
Santa has 6 cases.[33]
| Case | Marker | Example | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | -∅ | morei holuwe | the horse ran |
| Genitive-accusative | -ni (-yi) | bula-ni usu | water of the spring |
| Dative-locative-benefactive | -de | ula-de khirei | climb the mountain |
| Ablative-comparative | -se | udani hon-se gaowe | better than last year |
| Comitative (joint case) | -le | chi ibura-le hhantu echi | you go together with Ibura |
| Comitative (aspect case) | -re | bi chima-re sanane | I want to settle accounts with you |
| Sociative-instrumental | -gh(u)ala | khidei-ghala kielie | speak in Chinese |
| Locative-prosecutive | -gvun | moronghizha-gvun nie uzhe | look along the river |
| Word | Note | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| morei-mini | (also -miyi, -miy) | my horse |
| morei-matanni | (also -matayi, -matay) | our (inclusive) horse |
| morei-bijienni | (also -bijieyi, -bijiey) | our (exclusive) horse |
| morei-chini | (also -chiyis, -chiy) | your horse |
| morei-tani | (also -tayi, -tay) | your (plural) horse |
| morei-ni | him/her/their (any 3rd person pronoun) horse |
| Particle | Word | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| -ne | chi gaga-ne uru | you call your elder brother to come |
| Case | Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Exclusive | Inclusive | ||
| Nominative | bi / orun (quotation) | bijien | matan / oruntan (quotation) |
| Genitive-accusative | mi-ni / nama-ni (namiyi) | bijien-ni | matan-ni / ma-ni |
| Dative-locative | nama-de / ma-de | bijien-de | matan-de |
| Ablative-comparative | nama-se / ma-se | bijien-se | matan-se |
| Comitative (joint case) | nama-le / ma-le | bijien-le | matan-le |
| Sociative-instrumental | bi-ghala | bijien-ghala | matan-ghala |
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | chi | ta / tan |
| Genitive-accusative | chi-ni | ta-ni |
| Dative-locative | chima-de | tan-de |
| Ablative-comparative | chima-se / cha-se | tan-se |
| Comitative (joint case) | chima-le | tan-le |
| Sociative-instrumental | chi-ghala | ta-ghala |
| Case | Singular | Plural | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | hhe | tere | egven | hhela | terela | egvenla |
| Genitive-accusative | hhesila | teresila | egvesila | |||
| Dative-locative | hhe-ni | tere-ni | egen-ni | hhela-ni | terela-ni | egvenla-ni |
| Ablative-comparative | hhe-nde | tere-(n)de / ten-de | egven-de | hhela-de | terela-de | egvenla-de |
| Comitative (joint case) | hhe-nse | tere-(n)se | egven-se | hhela-se | terela-se | egvenla-se |
| Sociative-instrumental | hhe-nle | tere-le | egven-le | hhela-le | terela-le | egvenla-le |
| Sociative instrumental | hhe-ghala | tere-ghala | egven-ghala | hhela-ghala | terela-ghala | egvenla-ghala |
| Case | Particle | Example | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Imperative | -ye | matanghala yawu-ye | let's go (dual) |
| -gie | chini gien ghujingvan gaoda-gie | may your illness heal quickly | |
| Declarative | -we | bi uzhe-we | I watched |
| Aspect | Particle | Example | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Perfect | -we | bi bazade echi-we | I have gone to Linxia |
| Imperfect | -ne | chi khala echi-ne | where are you going? |
| Continuative | -zhiwe (-zho) | ana-miyi budan gie-zhiwe | my mum is cooking |
Voice category (relationship between action and its subject)
| Voice | Particle | Example | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Active voice | -∅ | ||
| Causative voice | -gva | bai-gva | to establish |
| Cooperative voice | -ndu | jie-ndu | to eat |
Numeral: Singular has no suffix, plural suffix is -ndu, the same as Cooperative voice.
Numbers: Singular has no additional component, plural's additional component is -ndu, the same as the additional component for Cooperative voice.
| Adverb | Particle | Example | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Coordinative adverbial verb | -zhi | shira-zhi ijie | to roast and eat |
| Repetitive adverbial verb | -n | wila-n wila-n yawulawe | walking while crying and crying |
| Purpose adverbial verb | -le | bi nie uzhe-le irewe | I came to take a look |
| Separative adverbial verb | -dene (-de) | chi ijie-dene bi ijieye | you eat first, then I'll eat |
| Conditional adverbial verb | -se | ghura bao-se bi ulie irene | if it rains, I won't come |
| Choice, Limit adverbial verb | -tala | khara olu-tala wilie giewe | work until it gets dark |
| Concessive adverbial verb | -senu | eqiemagva bosi-senu shu uzhezho | read a book after getting up in the morning |
| Tense | Particle | Example | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Past | -san (-sen) | ene baodei bolu-sanwe | this wheat is ripe |
| Future | -ku / -wu | echi-ku mo gholowe | the road that needs to be taken is long |
| Present | -chin | enende sao-chin kun wainu uwe | is there anyone living here? |
| bi | wi | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Active verb | wai-ne | wi-we | |
| Stative verb | Past stative verb | bi-san | wi-san |
| Future stative verb | bi-ku | wi-ku | |
| Present stative verb | bi-chin | wi-chin | |
| Adverbial verb | Coordinative adverbial verb | bi-zhi | wi-zhi |
| Separative adverbial verb | bi-dene | wi-dene | |
| Conditional adverbial verb | bi-se | wi-se | |
| Choice, Limit adverbial verb | bi-tala | wi-tala | |
| Concessive adverbial verb | bi-senu | wi-senu | |
| Tense | Particle | Example | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| Speculative | bi-mu | hhen-de baer bi-mu | he might be rich |
| Recollective | bi-lai | hhe nasun giedun bi-lai bi matawe | I forgot how old he is |
In common with other Mongolic languages, Dongxiang is spoken as anSOV language. In Linxia, however, under the influence of theMandarin Chinese dialects spoken by the neighbouringHui people, sentences of theSVO type have also been observed.[34]
Knowledge ofArabic is widespread among the Sarta and as a result, they often use theArabic script to write down their language informally (cf. theXiao'erjing system that was used byHui people); however, this has been little investigated by scholars. As of 2003[update], the officialLatin alphabet for Dongxiang, developed on the basis of theMonguor alphabet, remained in the experimental stage:[35]
| Letter | IPA | Letter | IPA | Letter | IPA |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| b | /p/ | g | /k/ | x | /ɕ/ |
| p | /pʰ/ | k | /kʰ/ | zh | /t͡ʂ/ |
| m | /m/ | gh | /q/ | ch | /t͡ʂʰ/ |
| f | /f/ | kh | /qʰ/ | sh | /ʂ/ |
| d | /t/ | h | /x/ | z | /t͡s/ |
| t | /tʰ/ | gv | /ʁ/ | c | /t͡sʰ/ |
| n | /n,ŋ/[a] | hh | /h/ | s | /s/ |
| l | /l/ | j | /t͡ɕ/ | w | /w/ |
| r | /r,ʐ/[b] | q | /t͡ɕʰ/ | y | /j/ |
| Letter | IPA | Letter | IPA | Letter | IPA |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| a | /ɑ/ | u | /u/ | ie | /jə/ |
| e | /ə/ | ai | /ɑj/ | iu | /ju/ |
| er | /ɚ/ | ei | /əj/ | ua | /wɑ/ |
| i[a] | /i/ | ao | /ɑw/ | ui | /wəj/ |
| ii | /ɯ/ | ou | /əw/ | iao | /jɑw/ |
| o | /o/ | ia | /jɑ/ | uai | /wɑj/ |
| Numeral | Dongxiang | IPA | Classical Mongolian |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | nie | /njə/ | nigen |
| 2 | ghua | /qwɑ/ | qoyar |
| 3 | ghuran | /quˈrɑŋ/ | ghurban |
| 4 | jieron | /t͡ɕjəˈroŋ/ | dörben |
| 5 | tawun | /tʰaˈwuŋ/ | tabun |
| 6 | dzigvon | /t͡ʂiˈʁoŋ/ | jirghughan |
| 7 | dolon | /toˈloŋ/ | dologhan |
| 8 | naiman | /nɑjˈmɑŋ/ | naiman |
| 9 | yesun | /jəˈsuŋ/ | yisün |
| 10 | hharan | /hɑˈrɑŋ/ | arban |
Some numbers in Dongxiang have been heavily influenced by Mandarin. These include 30 (sanshi) and 40 (sishi). Meanwhile, bothkhorun/qʰoˈruŋ/ andershi/ˈɚʂi/ are used for 20.
There are about 20,000 people in the north-eastern partDongxiang County, who self-identify as Dongxiang orHui people who do not speak Dongxiang, but natively speak a Dongxiang-influenced form ofMandarin Chinese. The linguist Mei W. Lee-Smith calls this the "Tangwang language" (Chinese:唐汪话), based on the names of the two largest villages (Tangjia and Wangjia, parts of TangwangTown) where it is spoken and argues it is acreolized language.[36] According to Lee-Smith, the Tangwang language uses mostly Mandarin words and morphemes with Dongxiang grammar. Besides Dongxiang loanwords, Tangwang also has a substantial number of Arabic and Persian loanwords.[36]
Like Standard Mandarin, Tangwang is a tonal language, but grammatical particles, which are typically borrowed from Mandarin, but are used in the way Dongxiang morphemes would be used in Dongxiang, do not carry tones.[36]
For example, while the Mandarin plural suffix-men (们) has only very restricted usage (it can be used with personal pronouns and some nouns related to people), Tangwang uses it, in the form-m, universally, the way Dongxiang would use its plural suffix-la. Mandarin pronounni (你) can be used in Tangwang as a possessive suffix (meaning "your").Unlike Mandarin, but like Dongxiang, Tangwang has grammatical cases as well (however only four of them, unlike eight in Dongxiang).[36]