Kirtana (Sanskrit:कीर्तन;IAST:Kīrtana), also rendered asKiirtan,Kirtan orKeertan, is aSanskrit word that means "narrating,reciting, telling, describing" of an idea or story,[1][2] specifically inIndian religions. It also refers to a genre of religious performance arts, connoting a musical form of narration, shared recitation, or devotional singing,[3] particularly of spiritual or religious ideas,[1] native to theIndian subcontinent. A person performing kirtan is known as akirtankara (orkirtankar, कीर्तनकार).[4][5]
With roots in theVedicanukirtana tradition, a kirtan is acall-and-response orantiphonal style song orchant, set to music, wherein multiple singers recite the names of a deity, describe a legend, express loving devotion to a deity, or discuss spiritual ideas.[6] It may include dancing or direct expression ofbhavas (emotive states) by the singer.[6] Many kirtan performances are structured to engage the audience where they either repeat the chant,[7] or reply to the call of the singer.[8][9][10]
A kirtan performance includes an accompaniment of regionally popular musical instruments, especiallyIndian instruments like theIndian harmonium, theveena,sitar, orektara (strings), thetabla (one-sideddrums), themrdanga orpakhawaj (two-sided drum),flute (woodwinds), andkaratalas or talas (cymbals).[11] It is a major practice inHinduism,Vaisnava devotionalism,Sikhism, theSant traditions, and some forms ofBuddhism, as well as other religious groups. Kirtan is sometimes accompanied by story-telling and acting. Texts typically cover religious, mythological or social subjects.[12]
The termkirtana (Devanagari: कीर्तन) generally means "telling, narrating, describing, enumerating, reporting".[1][14] The Sanskrit root of kirtan iskirt (कीर्त्).[15] The term is found in theSamhitas, theBrahmanas, and other Vedic literature, as well as theVedanga andSutras literature.Kirt, according toMonier-Williams, contextually means "to mention, make mention of, tell, name, call, recite, repeat, relate, declare, communicate, commemorate, celebrate, praise, glorify".[16]
The term kirtan is found asanukirtan (oranukrti,anukarana, literally "retelling") in the context of aYajna (Vedic ritual offering), which meant a dual recitation of Vedic hymns in a dialogue style that was part of a ritual dramatic performance.[1][17]
The Sanskrit verses in theShatapatha Brahmana (chapter 13.2, c. 800–700 BCE), for example, are written in the form of a riddle play between two actors.[18] According to Louis Renou, in this text, "the Vedic sacrifice (yajna) is presented as a kind of drama, with its actors, its dialogues, its portion to be set to music, its interludes, and its climaxes."[19]
Generally speaking, kirtan, sometimes calledsankirtana (literally, "collective performance"), is a kind of collective chanting or musical conversation. As a genre of religious performance art, it developed in the Indianbhakti movements as a devotional religious practice (i.e.bhakti yoga).[20] But it is a heterogeneous practice that varies regionally, according toChristian Novetzke, and includes varying mixtures of musical instruments, dance, oration, theatre, audience participation, and moral narration.[13]
InMaharashtra for example, Novetzke says, a kirtan is a call-and-response style performance, ranging from devotional dancing and singing by a lead singer and audience to an "intricate scholarly treatise, a social commentary or a philosophical/linguistic exposition" that includes narration, allegory, humor, erudition and entertainment—all an aesthetic part ofranga (beauty, color) of the kirtan.[13]
Kirtan is locally known by various names, includingAbhang,Samaj Gayan,Haveli Sangeet,Vishnupad,Harikatha.[21] Vaishnava temples in Assam and northeastern Indian have large worship halls calledkirtan ghar—a name derived from their being used for congregational singing and performance arts.[22] Kirtan is also sometimes calledharinam (Sanskrit: harināma) in some Vaishnava traditions, which means "[chanting] the names of God (Hari)."
In regional languages, kirtan is scripted asBengali:কীর্তন; Nepali andHindi:कीर्तन;Kannada:ಕೀರ್ತನೆ;Marathi:कीर्तन;Punjabi:ਕੀਰਤਨ /کیرتن; Sindhi:ڪِيرَتَنُ /कीरतनु;Tamil:கீர்த்தனை;Telugu:కీర్తన.
Kirtans andbhajans are closely related, sharing common aims (devotion, faith, spiritual uplift and liberation), subjects, andmusical themes. Abhajan is freer, and can be a single melody performed by a single singer with or without musical instruments.Kirtan, in contrast, is generally a group performance, typically with acall and response orantiphonal musical structure, similar to an intimate conversation or gentle sharing of ideas. Kirtan also generally includes two or more musical instruments,[9][10] and has roots in Sanskritprosody andpoetic meter.[23]
Manykirtans are structured for more audience participation, where the singer calls a spiritual chant, a hymn or a devotional theme, the audience responds by repeating the chant or by chanting back a reply of their shared beliefs.[8][7]
Musical recitation of hymns, mantras and the praise of deities has ancient roots in Hinduism, and may be found in theVedic literature.[24][25] A key feature of popular Hindu kirtan is that it is mostly sung in vernacular languages likeHindi andBengali (unlikeVedic chanting, which is done inSanskrit), though this may include Sanskrit mantras.[26] This style of vernacular singing became popular during themedieval era (1300–1550) and theearly modern period (1550–1750).[26]
Hindu kirtan is influenced by the practices and teachings of the various devotionalBhakti movements, who emphasized emotional loving relationship with a personal God, and also by the figures of theSant tradition (likeKabir,Ravidas, andNamdev).[26][27] Beginning with theTamilAlvars andNayanars in around the 6th century, bhakti spread outsideTamilakam after the 12th century.[28][29] The foundations of the kirtan traditions are also found in works like theBhagavad-gita which describes thebhakti marga (path of loving devotion to god) as a means tomoksha. References to kirtan as a musical recitation are also found in theBhagavata Purana, an important Vaishnava text.[30] The story ofPrahlada in theAvatara Katha mentions kirtan as one of nine forms of bhakti.[31]
Bhakti poets and musicians likeJayadeva (the 12th century author of the SanskritGita Govinda) were influential in the development of Indian devotional music genres like kirtan (which, though written in the vernacular, often imitated the style of Sanskrit bhakti poems).[32] Jayadeva was a great classical composer and wrote devotional music in the dhruvapada style (which is similar todhrupad).[32]
There are various forms of Hindu kirtan, including northern traditions (often influenced byHindustani music andBengali music) and southern (Carnatic) traditions. Speaking of the Bengali kirtan tradition, Peggy Holroyde writes that "kirtans do not strictly adhere to theraga scale and they incorporate a chorus led by a leader. Much of the musical value is subordinated to the sentimental emotion expressed in the words of the song."[33] Regarding the southern (Carnatic) traditions of kirtan, they are generally "less ornate" than northern kirtan, making less use of "grace,trills andarabesques", but they are also much more structured musical forms.[33]
While kirtan is influenced by the practice of Indian classical music, they are much simpler than the complicated instrumental and vocal compositions of Indian classical ensembles. The focus of kirtan is on the lyrics or mantras, which deliver religious messages and stories. Guy Beck, writing on the northern kirtan tradition, states that "melody and rhythm are important, but devotional singers normally deplore musical virtuosity for its own sake, in contrast with the classical Hindustani and Karnatak traditions, which emphasizeimprovisation and technicalmastery. A large variety of musical styles and forms exist, and no single formula has ever been mandated by custom to the exclusion of others. Musicians and religious leaders thus freely compose religious and devotional songs."[34] However, some kirtan stylesare highly refined and technical, likedhrupad and Bengalipadavali kirtan, which is considered byBengalis to be the most cultured religious music.[35]
Regarding the arrangement, most kirtan performances are done by a group, with a choir led by a lead singer sitting on the floor, though sometimes, kirtan is done by standing group in temples, religious processions, or on the street.[34]
Generally speaking, the performance may begin with recitations of Sanskrit mantras, likeOm, names of deities, and may also include some Sanskrit prayers.[36] Then thelead singer sings a song or a mantra while accompanying himself with a versatile instrument (like aharmonium or asarangi), and the chorus (which may include the audience as well) repeats the lines and provides musical accompaniment and keeps therhythm (with percussion instruments like thetabla). Sometimes the lead may have some solo lines, and the chorus can accompany them with arefrain.[34] The performance may be punctuated by short sermons or stories.[36] The song repertoire is generally drawn from medieval authors, but may include more recent additions.[36] In temples, a formal worship ceremony (arati) may also follow.[36]
One important promoter of Vaishnava kirtan in Bengal wasChandidas (1339–1399), who introduced Vaishnava kirtan inBengali and was very influential on later Vaishnava northern kirtan.[32] Chandidas was instrumental in the BengaliVaiṣṇava Sahajiyā tradition, a form oftantricVaishnavism focused onRadha and Krishna which flourished inBengal,Bihar,Orissa, andAssam.[37][38] The Vaiṣṇava Sahajiyā tradition produced many great Bengali language poets and singers.[39][38]
The 16th century CE saw an explosion of Vaishnava kirtan in the north. During this time,Chaitanya Mahaprabhu popularizedKrishna based kirtan inBengal, promoting and teaching the singing of Vaishnava songs which celebrate the love betweenRadha and Krishna, understood as being the love between the soul and God.[40][32] Chaitanya is also known as the father ofpadavali singing, a highly developed and complex musical tradition.[32]
About the same time,Shankaradeva (1449–1568) inAssam inspired theEkasarana Dharma bhakti movement that emphasizedAdvaita Vedanta philosophy within theVaishnava framework of theBhagavata Purana.[41] Shankaradeva helped establishSattras (Hindu temples and monasteries) withkirtan-ghar (also calledNamghar), for Krishnaite singing and dramatic performance.[42]
Meanwhile, in theBraj region,Vallabha acharya launched a devotional movement which focused on kirtan songs about baby Krishna and his early childhood.[40] One ofshoot of this tradition is theRadha-centeredRadha-vallabha Sampradaya, whose singing style known asHaveli Sangeet is based on Hindustani classical forms like "dhrupad" and "dhamar".[43] Another kirtan style shared by the Braj traditions like the Vallabha,Haridasi, andNimbarka is samaj gayan, which is a kind of collective singing.[44]
Kirtan as a genre of religious music has been a major part of the Vaishnavism tradition, particularly starting with theAlvars ofSri Vaishnavism sub-tradition between the 7th to 10th century CE.[45] After the 13th-century, two subgenres of kirtan emerged in Vaishnavism, namely theNama-kirtana wherein the different names or aspects of god (a Vishnu avatar) are extolled, and theLila- kirtana wherein the deity's life and legends are narrated.[46]
In the modern era, north Indian styles of kirtan are widely practiced in the modernist movements ofSwami Sivananda,Anandamayi Ma,Sri Aurobindo, andA. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada.[36]
InAndhra Pradesh, the compositions of theTallapaka Annamacharya, a 14th-century Vaishnava mystic, represent the earliest known southern music called "sankirtana". He wrote in praise ofLord Venkateswara, the deity of Seven Hills inTirumala.[47] During his long and prolific career, he reputedly composed and sang 32,000 Sankirtanas and 12 Shatakas (sets of hundred verses) in bothTelugu andSanskrit.
There are three main styles ofMarathi kirtan, Varkari, Naradiya and Jugalbandi.
Varkari Kirtan was pioneered bySant Namdev (1270–1350) inMaharashtra.[13] It is usually based on the works of seven famous Maharashtri saints: Saint Nivruttinath,Sant Dnyaneshwar, Sopandev, Muktabai, saint Eknath, Saint Namdev, andSaint Tukaram. Marathi kirtan is typically performed by one or two main performers, accompanied byharmonium andtabla. It involves singing, acting, dancing, and story-telling.[48][49]
The show goes for two or three hours as time permits and is not divided into parts like "Naradiya Kirtan". This form was effectively performed for years by personalities like Hari Bhakti Parayan (sincere devotee of god) Sonopant (mama) Dandekar, Dhunda maharaj Deglurkar, Babamaharaj Satarkar, Dekhanebuwa, and many others in modern times. An institute at Alandi nearPune offers training in this form of Kirtan.
Naradiya Kirtan is divided into five main parts: naman (prayer), Purvaranga (the main spiritual lesson), chanting the names of God, katha or Akhyan (a story to support the lesson), final prayer.[50] The Naradiya Marathi Kirtan popular in Maharashtra is most often performed by a single performer, and contains the poetry of saints of Maharashtra such asDnyaneshwar,Eknath,Namdev andTukaram. Learned poets from 17th and 18th century such as Shridhar,Mahipati, and Moropant contributed to develop this form of kirtan.[51] A Naradiya kirtan performance can last for period of any length, from half an hour to three hours. Attendees may wear traditional clothing and the performers use instruments like the Indian harmonium, drums, and string instruments of various types mostly "Zanz", "chipali", "Tal" or "Chimata". Naradiya kirtan performers are usually very learned in literature, music, dance, acting and comedy.
Jugalbandi Kirtan is performed by two persons, allowing question-answer, dialogue and debate. Performance requires skill in music, dance, comedy, oratory, debate, memory, general knowledge andSanskrit literature. Training takes place at the Kirtan Kul in Sangli, the Akhil Bharatiya Kirtan Sanstha[52] in Dadar, Mumbai, the Narad Mandir at Sadashiv Peth, Pune and the Kalidas Mahavidyalay inRamtek,Nagpur as well as at smaller schools in Goa, Beed and Ujjain.
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Kirtan (Gurmukhi: ਕੀਰਤਨKīratana) refers to devotional singing inSikhism.[53][54] It is typically performed atGurdwaras (Sikh temples). Sikh scriptures and legends are usually recited in a song, to a certainraga and accompanied with musical instruments. The Gurus themselves created numerous musical instruments including theTaus, theSarangi, theSaranda and a modification of thePakhawaj (calledJori) creating an early form of theTabla.[55][56]
AShabad Kirtan refers to the musical recitation of theGuru Granth Sahib, the primary scripture in the Sikhism tradition which is arranged according toraga.[57]Shabad Kirtan can be listened to silently or sung along with the gathered congregation.[58][53]
Kirtan in Sikh history has been the musical analog ofKathas recitation, both preferably performed byragi jatha, or professional trained performers.[53] A Sikh Kirtan is a religious, aesthetic and social event, usually held in a congregational setting on Sundays or over certain festivals to honor the historical Gurus, but major temples in the Sikh tradition reciteKirtan every day as a mark of dailybhakti (devotional remembrance) of God's name.[53]
This congregational setting is called aSangat orSatsang, a word that in ancient Indian texts means "like minded individuals, or fellow travelers on a spiritual journey".[59][60]
Numerous Buddhist traditions use vocal music with instrumental accompaniment as part of their rituals and devotional practices.[61][62] Buddhist vocal music and chanting is often part of Buddhistrituals andfestivals in which they may be seen as offerings to the Buddha.[63] Chants, songs and plays about the life of the Buddha by the Buddhists ofBengal are sometimes calledBuddha-samkirtan orBuddha kirtan. Instruments like the Indian harmonium, flute,dotara,khol and kartal are used as accompaniment.[64][65]
Music has been used by Buddhists since the time ofearly Buddhism, as attested by artistic depictions in Indian sites likeSanchi.Early Buddhist sources often have a negative attitude towards music, possibly because it was considered sensual and inconsistent with its core monastic teachings.[66] However,Mahayana andVajrayana sources tend to be much more positive to music, seeing it as a suitable offering to the Buddhas and as askillful means to bring sentient beings to Buddhism.[66][67] Buddhist songs and chants make use of the following genres:sutras,mantras,dharani,parittas, orverse compositions (such asgathas,stotras, andcaryagitis).
Examples of Buddhist musical traditions include theNewari BuddhistGunlā Bājan,Tibetan Buddhist music,Japanese BuddhistShōmyō, modern Indian Buddhistbhajans, andCambodianSmot chanting. As there are many different traditions of Buddhist music and chanting, themusical instruments used vary widely, from solely relying on thehuman voice, to many types of classic instruments used inAsian music (such as the ancient Indianveena) as well as modern instruments (harmonium,keyboards,guitars, etc).
There are also some Western Buddhists who have recently adopted kirtan singing. One Western Buddhist kirtan artist isLee Mirabai Harrington.[68]
TheBene Israel, a Jewish community in the Indian subcontinent, adopted the devotional singing style Kirtan from their Marathi Hindu neighbors.[69] Their main traditional musical instruments are theIndian Harmonium and theBulbul tarang.[70]
In the modern era, kirtan has also been adopted by severaljews like Susan Deikman. These jewish kirtans replace Sanskrit Hindu lyrics with Hebrew songs and chants.[71]
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The famed Bengali saintParamahansa Yogananda was an early proponent of kirtan inthe West. He chantedGuru Nanak Dev'sHey Hari Sundara ("Oh God Beautiful") with 3,000 people atCarnegie Hall in 1923.[72]
Kirtan became more common with the spread of Indian religious movements in the West in the 1960s. Movements which were influential in bringing Indian kirtan to West include theInternational Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON),3HO (Sikh followers ofYogi Bhajan), theRamakrishna mission, theDivine Life Society, and Yogananda'sSelf-Realization Fellowship.[73][74]
Western kirtan singers, some of who learned in India, have also popularized the practice. Western kirtan performers includeKrishna Das,Bhagavan Das, Nina Rao,Wah!,Jai Uttal,Snatam Kaur,Lokah Music,Deva Premal,Jahnavi Harrison,Jim Gelcer,Jyoshna,Aindra Das,Gina Sala', andGaura Vani & As Kindred Spirits. Western Yoga centers report an increase in attendance at kirtans; according toPure Music's Frank Goodman in conversation withKrishna Das in 2006, kirtan has taken on a wider popularity.[75][76] Some Western kirtan singers have also adapted kirtan songs with influences from other styles, includingrock music,new-age music,African music andlatin american music.[77] There are also Kirtan singers in the west who sing more traditional Indian style kirtan such asKamini Natarajan andSheela Bringi.
Kirtan singing has also become popular among Westerners who consider themselvesspiritual but who are not part of any specific religious institution or movement ("spiritual but not religious").[77] In this case, kirtan is seen as a social, expressive and holistic experience which helps one connect with the inner self. It is also considered egalitarian and manifests as an eclectic practice which draws on multiple cultures and is tolerant to most religions.[77] Western spiritual kirtan can be found inWestern yoga centers,new age groups, spiritual communes, andneo-shamanic circles.[77]
For some Western practitioners, kirtan is seen as a way of socializing, relaxing, achieving meditative states, expressing oneself, attaining inner peace and positive emotions, getting to know one's inner self, and cultivating love for a deity and for others.[78]
In the United States case law, the termsankirtana has also been used to specifically refer to the promotional activities of ISKCON.[79] ISKCON had sought the right to performsankirtana in California airports such as in Los Angeles. The court ruled that while ISKCON has a constitutional rights of protected speech, the Los Angeles airport also has a right to forbid any form of solicitation, out of "a legitimate interest in controlling pedestrian congestion and reducing the risk of fraud and duress attendant to repetitive, in-person solicitation of funds" by all groups including ISKCON.[80]
The male given name Kirtan or Kirtana is used in South India for females as well, particularly inTelangana,Andhra Pradesh,Karnataka,Kerala, andTamil Nadu.[citation needed]
