Sandalwood is a class ofwoods from trees in thegenusSantalum. The woods are heavy, yellow, and fine-grained, and, unlike many other aromatic woods, they retain their fragrance for decades.Sandalwood oil is extracted from the woods. Sandalwood is often cited as one of the most expensive woods in the world. Both the wood and the oil produce a distinctive fragrance that has been highly valued for centuries. Consequently, some species of these slow-growing trees have sufferedover-harvesting in the past.
Thenomenclature and the taxonomy of the genus are derived from this species' historical and widespread use. Etymologically it is ultimately derived from Sanskritचन्दनChandana (čandana), meaning "wood for burning incense" and related tocandrah, "shining, glowing" and the Latincandere, to shine or glow. It arrived in English viaLate Greek,Medieval Latin andOld French in the 14th or 15th century.[1]
Sandalwoods are medium-sizedhemiparasitic trees, and part of the same botanical family as Europeanmistletoe. True sandalwoods are native toInsular Southeast Asia,Melanesia,Australia, and thePacific Islands. The main cultivated species,Santalum album, were introduced in ancient times into mainland Asia byAustronesian traders and have sincenaturalized inSouth Asia,Mainland Southeast Asia, southeasternChina, andTaiwan.[2][3][4] The main distribution of both wild and introduced sandalwood trees are in the drier tropical regions of India and the Indonesian islands of Timor and Sumba.[5]
S. album spread to other regions through theAustronesian maritime trade network, theincense trade route, and theMaritime Silk Road, until the sixteenth century CE.[6][7] The sandalwood produced inpeninsular India and the Malay Archipelago supported most consumption in East Asia and West Asia during the time of the incense trade route[8][9] before the commercialization of Australian sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) in sandalwood plantations in Australia and China, although sandalwood album (Santalum album) is still considered to have the best and original quality in terms of religion and alternative medicine.Santalum spicatum is marketed as the notable member of this group today by merchants because of its stable sources; others in the genus also have fragrant wood.
Various unrelated plants with scented wood and also referred to as "sandalwood," but are not in the true sandalwood genus:
Producing commercially valuable sandalwood with high levels of fragrance oils requires Indian sandalwood (S. album) trees to be a minimum of 15 years old – the yield, quality and volume are yet to be clearly understood. Yield of oil tends to vary depending on the age and location of the tree; usually, the older trees yield the highest oil content and quality. India continues to produce a superior quality of Santalum Album, withFP Aromatics being the largest exporter.[16] Australia is the largest producer ofS. album, with the majority grown aroundKununurra, in the far north of Western Australia byQuintis (formerly Tropical Forestry Services), which in 2017 controlled around 80% of the world's supply of Indian sandalwood,[17] andSantanol.[18] India used to be the world's biggest producer, but it has been overtaken by Australia in the 21st century.Over-exploitation is partly to blame for the decline.[19][20] However, ethical plantations in India are on the rise, and India is expected to increase its supply manyfold by 2030, owing to favourable weather conditions and competitive pricing.
Australian sandalwood (S. spicatum) is grown in commercialplantations throughout thewheatbelt of Western Australia, where it has been an important part of the economy since colonial times. As of 2020[update] Western Australia has the largest plantation resource in the world.[21]
Sandalwood is expensive compared to other types of woods. Tomaximize profit, sandalwood is harvested by removing the entire tree instead offelling at the trunk near ground level. This way wood from the stump and root, which possesses high levels of sandalwood oil, can also be processed and sold.[22]
Australian sandalwood is mostly harvested and sold inlog form, graded for heartwood content. The species is unique in that the whitesapwood does not require removal before distilling the oil. The logs are either processed to distill theessential oil, or made into powders for makingincense. Indian sandalwood, used mainly for oil extraction, does require removal of the sapwood prior to distillation. As of 2020[update], Australian sandalwood oil sold for aroundUS$1,500 per 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) (US$3,307 per lb), while Indian sandalwood oil, due to its higheralpha-santalol content, is priced at aboutUS$2,500 per kg (US$5,512 per lb).[21]
Sandalwood is often cited as one of the most expensive woods in the world, along withAfrican blackwood,pink ivory,agarwood andebony.[23][24]
Sandalwood has historically been an important tree in the development of the political economy of the Pacific. Prior to colonization in the region, the sandalwood tree was a marker of status, rank and beauty. It then became an important part of the Pacific trade during the colonial period, as it was one of the few resources the West was able to successfully trade with Chinese merchants. This western trade began to put pressure on the production of sandalwood in the region.[25]
Tonga, a Polynesian kingdom in the Oceania region, saw a collapse of its sandalwood tree population (locally known asʻahi) due to the disruption offahu, the hierarchical kinship-based social system which traditionally governed ʻahi harvest. When, in the early 1980s, a Chinese merchant willing to pay high prices arrived at the island ofHaʻano, lower-ranking family members began to harvest the trees without permission, encouraging many farmers to harvest their trees defensively, leading to overharvest. Nearly all of the sandalwood resources on the island were depleted over the span of two years. Anthropologist Mike Evans concluded, "whatever the short-term ecological benefits of enforcing privatized land tenure, because private property not only fragments social ties by allowing an individual to deny others, it has the potential to fragment the regional ecology as well."[26]
Sandalwood oil has a distinctive soft, warm, smooth, creamy, and milky precious-wood scent. Its quality and scent profile is greatly influenced by the age of the tree, location and the skill of the distiller. It imparts a long-lasting, woody base to perfumes from the oriental, woody,fougère, andchypre families, as well as a fixative to floral and citrus fragrances. When used in smaller proportions in aperfume, it acts as afixative, enhancing the longevity of other, more volatile, materials in the composite. Sandalwood is also a key ingredient in the "floriental" (floral-ambery) fragrance family – when combined with white florals such asjasmine,ylang ylang,gardenia,plumeria,orange blossom,tuberose,lily of the valley, etc. Its also acts as a versatile base that blends well with other woody scents likepatchouli andcedar.
Sandalwood oil in India is widely used in thecosmetic industry. The main source of true sandalwood,S. album, is a protected species, and demand for it cannot be met. Many species of plants are traded as "sandalwood". The genusSantalum has more than 19 species. Traders often accept oil from closely related species, as well as from unrelated plants such as West Indian sandalwood (Amyris balsamifera) in the familyRutaceae or bastard sandalwood (Myoporum sandwicense,Myoporaceae). However, most woods from these alternative sources lose their aroma within a few months or years.
Isobornyl cyclohexanol is a synthetic fragrance chemical produced as an alternative to the natural product.
Sandalwood's main components are the two isomers ofsantalol (about 75%). It is used inaromatherapy, in scentedcandles and to preparesoaps.[27]
Sandalwood lends itself well to carving and has thus, traditionally, been a wood of choice for statues and sculptures of Hindu gods.
Due to its lowfluorescence and optimalrefractive index, sandalwood oil is often employed as an immersion oil within ultraviolet andfluorescence microscopy.
Aboriginal Australians eat the seed kernels, nuts, and fruit of local sandalwoods, such as the quandong (S. acuminatum).[28]Early Europeans in Australia used quandong in cookingdamper by infusing it with its leaves, and in making jams, pies, andchutneys from the fruit.[28] InScandinavia, pulverised bark from red sandalwood (Pterocarpus soyauxii) is used—with other tropical spices—when marinatinganchovies and some types ofpickled herring such asmatjes,sprat, and certain types of traditionalspegesild, inducing a reddish colour and slightly perfumed flavour.[29][30][31]
Present-day chefs have begun experimenting in using the nut as a substitute formacadamia nuts or abush food substitute for almonds, hazelnuts, and others in Southeast Asian-styled cuisine.[32] The oil is also used as a flavour component in different food items, including candy, ice cream, baked food, puddings, alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, and gelatin. The flavouring is used at levels below 10 ppm, the highest possible level for use in food products being 90 ppm.
Oil is extracted from sandalwood through distillation. Many different methods are used, includingsteam distillation, water distillation, CO2 extraction, and solvent extractions. Steam distillation is the most common method used by sandalwood companies. It occurs in a four-step process, incorporating boiling, steaming, condensation, and separation. Water is heated to high temperatures (60–100 °C or 140–212 °F) and is then passed through the wood. The oil is very tightly bound within the cellular structure of the wood, but can be released by the high heat of the steam. The mixture of steam and oil is then cooled and separated so that the essential oil can be collected. This process is much longer than any otheressential oil's distillation, taking 14 to 36 hours to complete, but generally produces much higher quality oil. Water, or hydro, distillation is the more traditional method of sandalwood extraction which involves soaking the wood in water and then boiling it until the oil is released.[33] This method is not used as much anymore because of the high costs and time associated with heating large quantities of water.[34]
Sandalwood is considered sacred in the HinduAyurveda and is known in Sanskrit aschandana.[35] The wood is used for worshipping the deities, and it is said thatLakshmi (Sri), the goddess of well-being, lives in the sandalwood tree; therefore, it is also known asSrigandha.
Sandalwood paste is prepared by grinding a piece of dry sandalwood into powder, against a stone slab. With the gradual addition of water, a thick paste forms, (calledkalabham "കളഭം" inMalayalam language andgandha ಗಂಧ inKannada) and it is mixed withsaffron or other such pigments to makechandanam.Chandanam, further mixed with herbs, perfumes, pigments, and some other compounds, results injavadhu.Kalabham, chandanam, andjavadhu are dried and used askalabham powder,chandanam powder, andjavadhu powder, respectively.Chandanam powder is very popular in India and is also used in Nepal.
In Tirupati, after religious tonsure, sandalwood paste is applied to protect the skin. InHinduism and Ayurveda, sandalwood is thought to bring one closer to the divine. Thus, it is one of the most used holy elements in Hindu and Vedic societies.[36][37]This paste is integral to rituals and ceremonies, for making religious utensils, for decorating sacred images, and it is believed to calm the mind during meditation and prayer. It is also distributed to devotees, who apply it to their foreheads or necks and chests.[38] Sandalwood paste is used for mostpujas both in temples and private households.
Sandalwood use is an integral part of the daily practices of Jainism. Sandalwood paste mixed with saffron is used to worship theTirthankaras ofJainism. Sandalwood powder is showered as blessings by Jain monks and nuns (sadhus andsadhvis) onto their disciples and followers. Sandalwood garlands are used to dress the body during Jain cremation ceremonies. During the festival ofMahamastakabhisheka that is held once in every 12 years, theGommateshwara statue is bathed and anointed with libations such as milk, sugarcane juice, and saffron paste, and sprinkled with powders of sandalwood,turmeric, andvermilion.[39]
Sandalwood is mentioned in varioussuttas of thePāli Canon.[40] In some Buddhist traditions, sandalwood is considered to be of thepadma (lotus) group and attributed toAmitabha Buddha. Sandalwood scent is believed by some to transform one's desires and maintain a person's alertness while inmeditation.[41] It is also one of the most popular scents used when offeringincense to the Buddha and the guru.
In the Indian variants ofSufism, sandalwood paste is applied on a revered Sufi's grave by the disciples as a mark of devotion. The tradition is practiced particularly by devotees in theIndian subcontinent. In Tamil culture, irrespective of one's religious identity, sandalwood paste or powder is applied to the graves of Sufi saints as a mark of devotion and respect.[42][43][44]
InEast Asia, sandalwood (檀木) is the most commonly used incense material by theChinese,Korean andJapanese in worship and various ceremonies. SomeTaoist sects, following the Ming Dynasty Taoist Manual, avoid the use of sandalwood (as well asbenzoin resin andfrankincense) as incense in worship.[45] InKorean Shamanism, sandalwood is considered theTree of Life. It was transmitted to China, the Korean Peninsula, and Japan during the eastward expansion of Buddhism.[7]: 3
Zoroastrians offer sandalwood twigs to theafarganyu, the urn in which the fire is kept at thefire temple (calledagiyari inGujarati anddar-e mehr inPersian), to keep the fire burning during religious ceremonies. After thefirekeeping priests complete the ceremony, attendees are allowed to come up to theafarganyu and place their own pieces of sandalwood into the fire. Fire has been a sacred symbol in the Zoroastrian religion since ancient times and it is considered very important to keep the fires in the templesconstantly burning. Because of its high sensitivity to fire, sandalwood works very well for this. Also, the wood has been accepted by theYasna andYashts (sacred texts) as an appropriate fuel for the fire. It is offered to all of thethree grades of fire in thefire temple, including theAtash Dadgahs. Sandalwood is not offered to thedivo, a smaller lamp that is kept in the homes of Zoroastrians. Often, money is offered to themobad (priest) as payment, along with sandalwood. Sandalwood is calledsukhad in theZoroastrian community. The sandalwood in the fire temple is often more expensive to buy than at a Zoroastrian store. It is often asource of income for the fire temple.[citation needed]
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