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Sand mining is the extraction ofsand, mainly through anopen pit (orsand pit)[1][failed verification][2] but sometimesmined frombeaches and inlanddunes ordredged from ocean andriver beds.[3] Sand is often used in manufacturing, for example as anabrasive or inconcrete. It is also used onicy andsnowy roads usually mixed withsalt, to lower themelting point temperature, on theroad surface. Sand can replace eroded coastline.[4] Some uses require higher purity than others; for example sand used in concrete must be free ofseashell fragments.
Sand mining presents opportunities to extractrutile,ilmenite, andzircon, which contain the industrially useful elementstitanium andzirconium. Besides these minerals, beach sand may also containgarnet,leucoxene,sillimanite, andmonazite.[5]
Theseminerals are quite often found in ordinary sand deposits. A process known aselutriation is used, whereby flowing water separates the grains based on their size, shape, and density.
Sand mining is a direct cause oferosion, and impacts the local wildlife.[6] Various animals depend on sandy beaches for nestingclutches, and mining has led to the near extinction ofgharials (a species ofcrocodilian) inIndia. Disturbance of underwater and coastal sand causesturbidity in the water, which is harmful for organisms likecoral that needsunlight. It can also destroyfisheries, financially harming their operators.
Removal of physical coastal barriers, such as dunes, sometimes leads to flooding of beachside communities, and the destruction of picturesque beaches causestourism to dissipate. Sand mining is regulated by law in many places, but is often done illegally.[7] Globally, it is a $70 billion industry, with sand selling at up to $90 per cubic yard.[8]
In the 1940 mining operations began on theKurnell Peninsula (Captain Cook's landing place inAustralia) to supply the expanding Sydney building market. It continued until 1990 with an estimate of over 70 million tonnes of sand having been removed. The sand has been valued for many decades by the building industry, mainly because of its high crushed shell content and lack of organic matter, it has provided a cheap source of sand for most of Sydney since sand mining operations began. The site has now been reduced to a few remnant dunes and deep water-filled pits which are now being filled withdemolition waste from Sydney's building sites. Removal of the sand has significantly weakened the peninsula's capacity to resist storms. Ocean waves pounding against the reduced Kurnell dune system have threatened to break through toBotany Bay, especially during the storms of May and June back in 1974 and of August 1998.[9]Sand Mining also takes place in the Stockton sand dunes north of Newcastle and in theBroken Hill region in the far west of the state.
A large and long-running sand mine inQueensland,Australia (onNorth Stradbroke Island) provides a case study in the environmental consequences on a fragile sandy-soil based ecosystem, justified by the provision of low wage casual labor on an island with few other work options.[10] The Labor state government pledged to end sand mining by 2025, but this decision was overturned by the LNP government which succeeded it. This decision has been subject to an allegation of corrupt conduct.[11]
From the 1850s to the early 20th century, sand was mined from the tall, cliff-like banks of theMaribyrnong River, in what is now suburbanMelbourne.[12] The Maribyrnong Sand Company was set up in the early 20th century to transport the sand by barge downriver to the industrial areas ofFootscray andYarraville, for use in the production of glass, concrete and ceramics.[13]
Sand mining contributes to the construction of buildings and development. The negative effects of sand mining include the permanent loss of sand in areas, as well as majorhabitat destruction.
Sand mining is an environmental problem in India. Environmentalists have raised public awareness ofillegal sand mining in the states ofMaharashtra,Madhya Pradesh,[14] Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu[15] andGoa.[16] Conservation and environmental NGOAwaaz Foundation filed apublic interest litigation in theBombay High Court seeking a ban on mining activities along theKonkan coast.[17] Awaaz Foundation, in partnership with theBombay Natural History Society also presented the issue of sand mining as a major international threat to coastal biodiversity at the Conference of Parties 11,Convention on Biological Diversity, Hyderabad in October 2012.[18][19]D. K. Ravi, anIndian Administrative Service officer of theKarnataka state, who was well known for his tough crackdown on the rampant illegal sand mining in theKolar district, was found dead at his residence inBengaluru, on 16 March 2015. It is widely alleged that the death was not due to suicide but caused by the mafia involved inland grabbing and sand mining.[20]
Sand mining occurs in theKaipara Harbour, off the coast atPakiri and offshore fromLittle Barrier Island.[21] A sand mine had operated atWhiritoa on the east coast of the North Island for 50 years extracting 180,000m3 of sand.[22] Coastal sand mines currently operate at Maioro andTaharoa to recoveriron sand.[23] When an application was lodged in 2005 to mine iron sands on the seabed of the coast ofRaglan local residents organised in opposition to the scheme.[24] The application for the mining was turned down byCrown Minerals due to a lack of technical detail. A proposal to begin sand mining inBream Bay was among 149 initiatives invited to apply forresource consent in a streamlined process under theFast-track Approvals Act 2024, an inclusion which drew widespread opposition amongst the local community.[25]
Activists and local villagers have protested against sand mining on Sierra Leone's Western Area Peninsula. The activity is contributing to Sierra Leone'scoastal erosion, which is proceeding at up to 6 meters a year.[26]
The current size of the sand mining market in the United States is slightly over a billion dollars per year. The industry has been growing by nearly 10% annually since 2005 because of its use in hydrocarbon extraction. The majority of the market size for mining is held by Texas and Illinois.[27]
Silica sand mining business has more than doubled since 2009 because of the need for this particular type of sand, which is used in a process known ashydraulic fracturing. Wisconsin is one of the five states that produce nearly 2/3 of the nation's silica. As of 2009, Wisconsin, along with other northern states, is facing an industrial mining boom, being dubbed the "sand rush" because of the new demand from large oil companies for silica sand. According to Minnesota Public Radio, "One of the industry's major players, U.S. Silica, says its sand sales tied to hydraulic fracturing nearly doubled to $70 million from 2009 to 2010 and brought in nearly $70 million injust the first nine months of 2011."[28] According to theWisconsin Department of Natural Resources (WDNR), there are currently 34 active mines and 25 mines in development in Wisconsin. In 2012, the WDNR released a final report on the silica sand mining in Wisconsin titledSilica Sand Mining in Wisconsin. The recent boom in silica sand mining has caused concern from residents in Wisconsin that include quality of life issues and the threat ofsilicosis. According to the WDNR (2012) these issues include noise, lights, hours of operation, damage and excessive wear to roads from trucking traffic, public safety concerns from the volume of truck traffic, possible damage and annoyance resulting from blasting, and concerns regarding aesthetics and land use changes.
As of 2013, industrial frac sand mining has become a cause for activism, especially in theDriftless Area of southeast Minnesota, northeast Iowa and southwest Wisconsin.[why?]
Much sand is extracted by dredges from the bottom of rivers such as theRed River inYunnan, or quarried in dry river beds. Due to the large demand for sand for construction, illicit sand mining is not uncommon.[29][better source needed]
In 2020 theCoast Guard Administration of the neighboring country ofTaiwan expelled or detained nearly 4,000 Chinese sand dredging vessels.[30] Illegal sand dredging by Chinese vessels causes environmental damage in Taiwan[31] as well as thePhilippines.[32]
Sand has by now become the most widely consumed natural resource on the planet after fresh water
Sand has by now become the most widely consumed natural resource on the planet after fresh water
