The area of theisland is 477.395 km2 (184.3 sq mi),[11] and it is 43 km (27 mi) long and 13 km (8 mi) wide. It is separated fromAnatolia by the approximately 1-mile-wide (1.6 km)Mycale Strait. While largely mountainous, Samos has several relatively large and fertile plains.
A great portion of the island is covered withvineyards, from whichMuscat wine is made. The most important plains other than the capital,Vathy, in the northeast, are those ofKarlovasi, in the northwest,Pythagoreio, in the southeast, andMarathokampos in the southwest. The island's population is 33,814, which makes it the 9th most populous of the Greek islands. The Samian climate is typically Mediterranean, with mild rainy winters, and warm rainless summers.
Samos's relief is dominated by two large mountains, Ampelos andKerkis (anc. Kerketeus). The Ampelos massif (colloquially referred to as "Karvounis") is the larger of the two and occupies the centre of the island, rising to 1,095 metres (3,593 ft). Mt. Kerkis, though smaller in area, is the taller of the two, and its summit is the island's highest point, at 1,434 metres (4,705 ft). The mountains are a continuation of theMycale range on the Anatolian mainland.[6]
Samos has a hot-summerMediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification:Csa), with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers. The highest temperature ever recorded is 43.0 °C (109.4 °F) while the lowest is −3.4 °C (25.9 °F). July is the hottest and driest month followed by August while February is the coldest month and December records the highest amount of precipitation. Samos receives about 705 millimetres (27.8 in) of rainfall annually while the average annual temperature is 18.4 °C (65.1 °F). Humidity is lowest during the summer and highest at the end of autumn.
Climate data for Samos Airport, Greece (1978-2010)
Colonies of ancient SamosKouros of Samos, the largest surviving Kouros in Greece, showing Egyptian influence (Archaeological Museum of Samos)
In classical antiquity, the island was a centre ofIonian culture and luxury, renowned for its Samian wines and its red pottery (calledSamian ware by the Romans). Its most famous building was theIonic order archaic Temple of goddessHera—theHeraion.[6]
Concerning the earliest history of Samos, literary tradition is singularly defective. At the time of the great migrations, it received an Ionian population which traced its origin toEpidaurus inArgolis: Samos became one of the twelve members of theIonian League. By the 7th century BC, it had become one of the leading commercial centres of Greece. This early prosperity of the Samians seems largely due to the island's position near trade routes, which facilitated the import of textiles from inner Asia Minor, but the Samians also developed an extensive oversea commerce. They helped to open up trade with the population that lived around the Black Sea as well as with Egypt, Cyrene (Libya), Corinth, and Chalcis. Among thecolonies the Samians founded, most of them in the sixth century BC, wereBisanthe,Perinthus, andSamothrace (northernAegean Sea),Cydonia (Crete),Nagidos andKelenderis (southernAnatolia),Dicaearchia (Italy), andOasis Polis (Egypt).[16] The trade caused them to become bitter rivals withMiletus. Samos was able to become so prominent despite the growing power of the Persian empire because of the alliance they had with the Egyptians and their powerful fleet. The Samians are also credited with having been the first Greeks to reach the Straits of Gibraltar.[17]
The feud betweenMiletus and Samos broke out into open strife during theLelantine War (7th century BC), with which a Samian innovation in Greek naval warfare may be connected, the use of thetrireme. The result of this conflict was to confirm the supremacy of the Milesians in eastern waters for the time being; but in the 6th century, the insular position of Samos preserved it from those aggressions at the hands of Asiatic kings to whichMiletus was henceforth exposed. About 535 BC, when the existing oligarchy was overturned by the tyrantPolycrates, Samos reached the height of its prosperity. Its navy not only protected it from invasion but also ruled supreme in Aegean waters. The city was beautified with public works, and its school of sculptors, metal-workers and engineers achieved high repute.[6]
In the 6th century BC, Samos was ruled by the famoustyrantPolycrates. During his reign, two working groups under the leadership of the engineerEupalinos dug a tunnel through Mount Kastro to build anaqueduct to supply the ancient capital of Samos with fresh water, as this was of the utmost defensive importance (since being underground, it was not easily detected by an enemy who could otherwise cut off the supply). Eupalinos's tunnel is particularly notable because it is the second earliest tunnel in history to be dug from both ends in a methodical manner.[18] With a length of over 1 km (0.6 mi), Eupalinos's subterranean aqueduct is today regarded as one of the masterpieces of ancient engineering. The aqueduct is now part of theUNESCOWorld Heritage Site, thePythagoreion.
After Polycrates's death, Samos suffered a severe blow when the PersianAchaemenid Empire conquered and partly depopulated the island. It had regained much of its power when in 499 BC it joined the general revolt of theIonian city-states against Persia; but owing to its long-standing jealousy of Miletus, it rendered indifferent service, and at the decisive battle of Lade (494 BC), part of its contingent of sixty ships was guilty of outright treachery. In 479BC, the Samians led the revolt against Persia, during the Battle of Mycale,[6] which was part of the offensive by the Delian League (led by Cimon).
In theDelian League, Samos held a position of special privilege and remained actively loyal to Athens until 440 BC, when a dispute withMiletus, which the Athenians had decided against them, induced them to secede. With a fleet of sixty ships, they held their own for some time against a large Athenian fleet led byPericles himself, but after a protracted siege, they were forced to capitulate.[6] Samos was punished, butThucydides tells readers not as harshly as other states which rebelled against Athens. Most in the past had been forced to pay tribute, but Samos was only told to repay the damages that the rebellion had cost the Athenians:[19] 1,300 talents, to pay back in instalments of 50 talents per annum.
During thePeloponnesian War (431–404 BC), Samos took the side ofAthens againstSparta, providing their port to the Athenianfleet. At the end of the Peloponnesian War, Samos appears as one of the most loyal dependencies of Athens, serving as a base for the naval war against the Peloponnesians and as a temporary home of the Athenian democracy during therevolution of the Four Hundred at Athens (411 BC), and in the last stage of the war was rewarded with the Athenian franchise. This friendly attitude towards Athens was the result of a series of political revolutions, which ended in the establishment of a democracy. After the downfall of Athens, Samos was besieged byLysander and again placed under an oligarchy.[6]
In 394 BC, the withdrawal of the Spartan navy induced the island to declare its independence and re-establish a democracy, but by the peace of Antalcidas (387 BC), it fell again under Persian dominion. It was recovered by the Athenians in 366 after a siege of eleven months, and received a strong body of military settlers, thecleruchs, which proved vital in theSocial War (357-355 BC). After theLamian War (322 BC), when Athens was deprived of Samos, the vicissitudes of the island can no longer be followed.[6]
Perhaps the most famous persons ever connected with classical Samos were the philosopher and mathematicianPythagoras and the fabulistAesop. In 1955, the town of Tigani was renamed Pythagoreio in honour of the philosopher.
For some time (about 275–270 BC), Samos served as a base for the Egyptian fleet of thePtolemies; at other periods, it recognized the overlordship ofSeleucid Syria. In 189 BC, it was transferred by the Romans to their vassal, theAttalid dynasty's Hellenistic kingdom ofPergamon, inAsia Minor.[6]
Enrolled from 133 in the Roman province of Asia Minor, Samos sided withAristonicus (132) andMithridates (88) against its overlord, and consequently forfeited its autonomy, which it only temporarily recovered between the reigns ofAugustus andVespasian. Nevertheless, Samos remained comparatively flourishing and was able to contest withSmyrna andEphesus the title "first city of lonia";[6] it was chiefly noted as a health resort and for the manufacture of pottery. Since Emperor Diocletian'sTetrarchy, it became part of the Provincia Insularum, in the diocese ofAsiana in the eastern empire's pretorian prefecture ofOriens.[6]
As a portion of theByzantine Empire, Samos became part of thenamesake theme. After the 13th century, it passed through much the same changes of government asChios, and, like the latter island, became the property of the Genoese familyGiustiniani (1346–1566; 1475 interrupted by an Ottoman period). It was also ruled byTzachas between 1081–1091.[6]
Samos came under Ottoman rule in 1475[20] orc. 1479/80,[21] at which time the island was practically abandoned due to the effects of piracy and the plague. The island remained desolate for almost a full century before the Ottoman authorities, by now in secure control of the Aegean, undertook a serious effort to repopulate the island.[21]
In 1572/3, the island was granted as a personal domain (hass) toKilic Ali Pasha, theKapudan Pasha (theOttoman Navy's chief admiral). Settlers, including Greeks andArvanites from thePeloponnese and theIonian Islands, as well as the descendants of the original inhabitants who had fled toChios, were attracted through the concession of certain privileges such as a seven-year tax exemption, a permanent exemption from thetithe in exchange for a lump annual payment of 45,000piastres, and a considerable autonomy in local affairs.[21] The island recovered gradually, reaching a population of some 10,000 in the 17th century, which was still concentrated mostly in the interior. It was not until the mid-18th century that the coast began to be densely settled as well.[21]
Under Ottoman rule, Samos (Ottoman Turkish: سيسامSisam) came under the administration of theKapudan Pasha'sEyalet of the Archipelago, usually as part of theSanjak of Rhodes rather than as a distinct province.[20] Locally, the Ottoman authorities were represented by avoevoda, who was in charge of the fiscal administration, thekadi (judge), the island's Orthodox bishop and four notables representing the four districts of the island (Vathy,Chora,Karlovasi andMarathokampos).[21] Ottoman rule was interrupted during theRusso-Turkish War of 1768–1774, when the island came under Russian control in 1771–1774.[21]
TheTreaty of Küçük Kaynarca that concluded the war contained clauses that enabled a great expansion of the commercial activities of the Ottoman Empire's Greek Orthodox population. Samian merchants also took advantage of this, and an urban mercantile class based on commerce and shipping began to grow.[21] The Samian merchants' voyages across the Mediterranean, as well as the settlement of Greeks from the Ionian Islands (which in 1797 had passed from Venice to theFrench Republic), introduced to Samos the progressive ideas of theAge of Enlightenment and of theFrench Revolution, and led to the formation of two rival political parties, the progressive-radicalKarmanioloi ("Carmagnoles", named after the French Revolutionary songCarmagnole) and the reactionaryKallikantzaroi ("goblins") who represented mostly the traditional land-holding elites. Under the leadership ofLykourgos Logothetis, in 1807 theKarmanioloi gained power in the island, introducing liberal and democratic principles and empowering the local popular assembly at the expense of the land-holding notables. Their rule lasted until 1812, when they were overthrown by the Ottoman authorities and their leaders expelled from the island.[21]
In March 1821, theGreek War of Independence broke out, and on 18 April, under the leadership of Logothetis and theKarmanioloi, Samos too joined the uprising. In May, a revolutionary government with itsown constitution was set up to administer the island, mostly inspired by Logothetis.[22]
The Samians successfully repulsed three Ottoman attempts to recapture the island: in summer 1821, in July 1824; when Greek naval victories offSamos and atGerontas averted the threat of an invasion, and again in summer 1826. In 1828, the island became formally incorporated into theHellenic State under GovernorIoannis Kapodistrias, as part of the province of theEastern Sporades, but theLondon Protocol of 1830 excluded Samos from the borders of the independent Greek state.[22]
The Samians refused to accept their re-subordination to the Sultan, and Logothetis declared Samos to be an independent state, governed as before under the provisions of the 1821 constitution. Finally, due to the pressure of theGreat Powers, Samos was declared an autonomous, tributary principality under Ottomansuzerainty. The Samians still refused to accept this decision until an Ottoman fleet enforced it in May 1834, forcing the revolutionary leadership and a part of the population to flee to independent Greece, where they settled nearChalkis.[22]
Flag of the Principality of Samos. It is thecontemporary Greek flag with the two upper quadrants in red to symbolize Ottoman suzerainty.
In 1834, the island of Samos became the territory of thePrincipality of Samos, a semi-independent state tributary to Ottoman Turkey, paying the annual sum of £2,700. It was governed by a Christian of Greek descent though nominated by the Porte, who bore the title of "Prince." The prince was assisted in his function as chief executive by a 4-member senate. These were chosen by him out of eight candidates nominated by the four districts of the island: Vathy, Chora, Marathokampos, and Karlovasi. The legislative power belonged to a chamber of 36 deputies, presided over by the Greek Orthodox Metropolitan. The seat of the government was the port of Vathý.[6]
The modern capital of the island was, until the early 20th century, at Chora, about 2 miles (3.2 km) from the sea and from the site of the ancient city.[6]
After reconsidering political conditions, the capital was moved to Vathy, at the head of a deep bay on the North coast. This became the residence of the prince and the seat of government.[6]
Since then a new town has grown, with a harbour.[citation needed]
The union with theKingdom of Greece in March 1913Statue of a lion inSamos town; erected in 1930 to celebrate the centenary of Greek independence.
The island was united with theKingdom of Greece in March 1913, five months after the outbreak of theFirst Balkan War. Although other Aegean islands had been quickly captured by theGreek Navy, Samos was initially left to its existingstatus quo out of a desire not to upset the Italians in the nearbyDodecanese. The Greek fleet landed troops on the island in March 1913.[23] The clashes with the Ottoman garrison were short-lived as the Ottomans withdrew to the Anatolian mainland, so that the island was securely in Greek hands by 16 March.[24][25]
DuringWorld War II, the island wasoccupied by the Italians in May 1941, with the6th Infantry Division "Cuneo" being stationed on the island. During the winter of 1941–42 Samos was affected by theGreat Famine which killed 2,000 Samiots and forced thousands more to flee the island for the Middle East. In December 1942, local communists founded a branch ofELAS resistance organisation, the following month the resistance came into contact with the British military who provided them with material support. In spring 1943, the Cuneo Division launched an unsuccessful, two-month-long counter-insurgency operation in Karvouni. In June 1943, ELAS came into contact with the anti-fascist organisation within the Cuneo Division resulting in an unofficial two-month truce between the two sides. After theFall of the Fascist regime in Italy on 25 July,Pietro Badoglio replaced division commanderMario Soldarelli with Lieutenant General Pierola and reinforced the Samos garrison with 1,500Blackshirts. Pierola then launched another counter-insurgency operation in Kerkis, which resulted in the death of 40 resistance members. Following theItalian surrender in September 1943, the Cuneo Division joined forces with ELAS in arresting local collaborationists and freeing jailed resistance fighters. Samos was briefly taken over by theSacred Band and British forces, but following the Allied defeat in theBattle of Leros and a fierce aerial bombardment of Vathy and Tigani, the island was abandoned by most of the ELAS members, the anti-fascist Italians and the Allied troops and taken over by Germans without a fight. The Germans then destroyed the harbours of Karlovasos and Ormos Marathokampos with explosives. On 15 September 1944, an Allied aerial bombardment destroyed the German ship "Aslan" along with three support ships in the Vathy harbour. Upon the departure of the Germans, ELAS and a 120-man unit of the Sacred Band forced the remaining 1,000 Blackshirts to surrender; ending the island's occupation on 5 October 1944.[27]
Many of the Samiot ELAS members that abandoned the island following its occupation by the Germans, enlisted in theGreek Armed Forces in the Middle East, participated in the communist-led1944 Greek naval mutiny and were subsequently imprisoned in British prison camps. Approximately 4,500 of them returned to the island after the end of the war. The anti-communistpersecutions that came in the aftermath of theTreaty of Varkiza led many former ELAS members to create self-defence militias which gradually evolved into the Samos branch of theDemocratic Army of Greece (DSE). The Samiot DSE drew manpower from nearbyIcaria which was a notable place ofinternal exile for Greek communists, it was also able to capture large quantities of weapons and ammunition abandoned by the Italians during World War II. During the course of theGreek Civil War, Samos became one of the biggest centres of DSE resistance outside of the Greek mainland. The last DSE unit surrendered in Kerkis on 26 August 1949, the defeat of the communist resistance was followed by a celebratory visit of theGreek royal family on 15 October 1949. A total of 197 Samiot DSE fighters were killed during the course of the civil war.[28]
A substantial migrant camp has been developed on the island at the site of a Greek military camp at Vathy to cope with the influx of migrants crossing the strait between the island and the Turkish mainland. It is estimated that in April 2020 the Vathy camp held 6,800 migrants, ten times the number it was originally designed for.[30] The presence of large numbers of migrants on the Greek islands has caused tensions and some civil unrest on the part of island residents and migrants being kept in camps.[31] In 2020, the Greek government announced a new closed reception centre will be built near the village of Zervou to replace the current temporary open camps by 2021.[32]
On 30 October 2020, amagnitude 7.0 earthquake struck offshore near the island, triggering a tsunami. The earthquake and tsunami resulted in two deaths and several injured in Samos, and 117 deaths and 1632 injured in Turkey. The earthquake also caused damage to a number of buildings in Vathy, Karlovasi, and their vicinities; these included residential buildings, public buildings (schools, halls, etc.), religious buildings (churches), the tower of Lykourgos Logothetis, as well as pottery collections and sculptures at some museums.[33]
The province of Samos (Greek:Επαρχία Σάμου) was one of theprovinces of the Samos Prefecture. It had the same territory as the present regional unit.[36] It was abolished in 2006.
The Samian economy depends mainly on agriculture[citation needed] and the tourist industry which was growing steadily since the early 1980s and reached a peak at the end of the 1990s.[37] The main agricultural products includegrapes,honey,olives,olive oil,citrus fruit, driedfigs,almonds and flowers. TheMuscat grape is the main crop used for wine production. Samian wine is also exported under several other appellations.
Lykourgos Logothetis (1772–1850), leader of the Samians during the revolution of 1821
Ion Ghica (1816–1897), Romanian revolutionary, mathematician, diplomat, prime minister of Romania, first president of the Romanian Academy, prince of Samos
^"Samos Climate". Hellenic National Meteorological Service. Archived fromthe original on 19 December 2011. Retrieved15 October 2012.
^"Climate Data for Samos".National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (FTP). Retrieved15 October 2012.[dead ftp link](To view documents seeHelp:FTP)
^Tsetskhladze, Gocha R. (2006).Greek Colonisation. An account of Greek Colonies and Other Settlements Overseas. Vol. 1. Leiden, Boston: Brill. pp. lxvii - lxxiii (Table 6).ISBN978-90-04-12204-8.
^abBirken, Andreas (1976).Die Provinzen des Osmanischen Reiches. Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients (in German). Vol. 13. Reichert. p. 107.ISBN9783920153568.
^abcdefghLandros Christos; Kamara Afroditi; Dawson Maria-Dimitra; Spiropoulou Vaso (10 July 2005)."Samos: 2.3. Ottoman rule".Cultural Portal of the Aegean Archipelago. Foundation of the Hellenic World. Archived fromthe original on 22 May 2013. Retrieved2 April 2013.
^abcLandros Christos, Kamara Afroditi; Dawson Maria-Dimitra; Spiropoulou Vaso (10 July 2005)."Samos: 2.4. The Greek War of Independence, 1821".Cultural Portal of the Aegean Archipelago. Foundation of the Hellenic World. Archived fromthe original on 22 May 2013. Retrieved2 April 2013.
^Μιχάλης Φύλλας, «H επίσκεψη του Βασιλέως Γεωργίου β΄ στη Σάμο το 1937 μέσα από τον σαμιακό τύπο της εποχής: η περίπτωση των εφημερίδων « Σ ά μ ο ς » και « Α ι γ α ί ο ν » Δελτίον Σαμιακών Σπουδών, τομ. 5 (2019-2020), σελ.113-126[1]
^Ioannis Spilanis, H. Vayanni et K. Glyptou (2012). Evaluating the tourism activity in a destination: the case of Samos Island, Revue Etudes Caribéennes,http://etudescaribeennes.revues.org/6257
^Yiannakis, John N.,"Anna Perivolaris (1888–1963)",Australian Dictionary of Biography, Canberra: National Centre of Biography, Australian National University, retrieved2024-02-17
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Margaritis, Giorgos (2006).Ιστορία του ελληνικού εμφυλίου πολέμου 1946-1949 [History of the Greek Civil War 1946-1949] (in Greek). Vol. II. Athens: Vivliorama.ISBN9608087139.
Vasileiou, Theodoros; Diakogiannis, Manolis; Zafeiris, Giannis; Katsoufros, Kostas; Marinis, Kostas; Christodoulou, Epi (1987).Ο αγώνας του Δημοκρατικού στρατού στη Σάμο [The Struggle of the Democratic Army in Samos] (in Greek). Athens: Syghroni Epoxi.ISBN9602249552.
A. Agelarakis, "Anthropologic Results: The Geometric Period Necropolis at Pythagoreion".Archival Report. Samos Island Antiquities Authority, Greece, (2003).
J. P. Barron,The Silver Coins of Samos (London, 1966).
J. Boehlau,Aus ionischen and italischen Nekropolen (Leipzig, 1898). (E. H. B.; M. 0. B. C.; E. Ga.).
C. Curtius,Urkunden zur Geschichte von Samos (Wesel, 1873).
P. Gardner,Samos and Samian Coins (London, 1882).
V. Guérin,Description de l'île de Patmos et de l'île de Samos (Paris, 1856).
K. Hallof and A. P. Matthaiou (eds),Inscriptiones Chii et Sami cum Corassiis Icariaque (Inscriptiones Graecae, xii. 6. 1–2). 2 vols. (Berolini–Novi Eboraci: de Gruyter, 2000; 2004).
B. V. Head,Historia Numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 515–518.
L. E. Hicks and G. F. Hill,Greek Historical Inscriptions (Oxford, 1901), No. 81.
H. Kyrieleis,Führer durch das Heraion von Samos (Athen, 1981).
T. Panofka,Res Samiorum (Berlin, 1822).
Pauly-Wissowa (in German, on Antiquity)
T. J. Quinn,Athens and Samos, Chios and Lesbos (Manchester, 1981).
G. Shipley,A History of Samos 800–188 BC (Oxford, 1987).
R. Tölle-Kastenbein,Herodot und Samos (Bochum, 1976).
H. F. Tozer,Islands of the Aegean (London, 1890).
K. Tsakos,Samos: A Guide to the History and Archaeology (Athens, 2003).
H. Walter,Das Heraion von Samos (München, 1976).
Westermann,Großer Atlas zur Weltgeschichte (in German)
Volumes of theSamos series of archaeological reports published by the Deutsches Archäologisches Institut.
1. V. Milojčić,Die prähistorische Siedlung unter dem Heraion (Bonn, 1961).
2. R. C. S. Felsch,Das Kastro Tigani (Bonn, 1988).
3. A. E. Furtwängler,Der Nordbau im Heraion von Samos (Bonn, 1989).
4. H. P. Isler,Das archaische Nordtor und seine Umgebung im Heraion von Samos (Bonn, 1978).
5. H. Walter,Frühe samische Gefäße (Bonn, 1968).
6.1. E. Walter-Karydi,Samische Gefäße des 6. Jahrhunderts v. Chr. (Bonn, 1973).
7. G. Schmidt,Kyprische Bildwerke aus dem Heraion von Samos (Bonn, 1968).
8. U. Jantzen,Ägyptische und orientalische Bronzen aus dem Heraion von Samos (Bonn, 1972).
9. U. Gehrikg, with G. Schneider,Die Greifenprotomen aus dem Heraion von Samos (Bonn, 2004).
10. H. Kyrieleis,Der große Kuros von Samos (Bonn, 1996).
11. B. Freyer-Schauenburg,Bildwerke der archaischen Zeit und des strengen Stils (Bonn, 1974).
12. R. Horn,Hellenistische Bildwerke auf Samos (Bonn, 1972).
14. R. Tölle-Kastenbein,Das Kastro Tigani (Bonn, 1974).
15. H. J. Kienast,Die Stadtmauer von Samos (Bonn, 1978).
16. W. Martini,Das Gymnasium von Samos (Bonn, 1984).
17. W. Martini and C. Streckner,Das Gymnasium von Samos: das frühbyzantinische Klostergut (Bonn, 1993).
18. V. Jarosch,Samische Tonfiguren aus dem Heraion von Samos (Bonn, 1994).
19. H. J. Kienast,Die Wasserleitung des Eupalinos auf Samos (Bonn, 1995).
20. U. Jantzen with W. Hautumm, W.-R. Megow, M. Weber, and H. J. Kienast,Die Wasserleitung des Eupalinos: die Funde (Bonn, 2004).
22. B. Kreuzer,Die attisch schwarzfigurige Keramik aus dem Heraion von Samos (Bonn, 1998).
24.1. T. Schulz with H. J. Kienast,Die römischen Tempel im Heraion von Samos: die Prostyloi (Bonn, 2002).
25. C. Hendrich,Die Säulenordnung des ersten Dipteros von Samos (Bonn, 2007).
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