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Samnium (Italian:Sannio) is aLatinexonym for a region ofSouthern Italy anciently inhabited by theSamnites. Their ownendonyms wereSafinim for the country (attested in one inscription and one coin legend) andSafineis for thepeople.[1] The language of these endonyms and of the population was theOscan language. However, not all the Samnites spoke Oscan, and not all the Oscan-speakers lived in Samnium.
Ancient geographers were unable to relay a precise definition of Samnium's borders. Moreover, the areas it included vary depending on the time period considered.[2] The main configurations are the borders it had during thefloruit of the Oscan speakers, from about 600 BC to about 290 BC, when it was finally absorbed by theRoman Republic.
The original territory of Samnium should not be confused with the later territory of the same name. Rome's firstEmperor,Augustus, dividedItaly into 11 regions.[3] Although these entities only served administrative purposes, and were identified with the sole numeral, by scholarly convention theRegio IV has been dubbed "Samnium". Ancient Samnium had actually been divided into three of the Augustan regions.[4]
Etymologically the name Samnium is generally recognized to be a form of the name of theSabines, who wereUmbrians.[5] From Safinim, Sabinus, Sabellus and Samnis anIndo-European root can be extracted, *sabh-, which becomes Sab- inLatino-Faliscan and Saf- inOsco-Umbrian: Sabini and *Safineis. The eponymous god of the Sabines, Sabus, seems to support this view. The Greek terms, Saunitai and Saunitis, remain outside the group. Nothing is known of their origin.
At some point in prehistory, a population speaking a common language extended over both Samnium andUmbria. Salmon conjectures that it was common Italic and puts forward a date of 600 BC, after which the common language began to separate into dialects. This date does not necessarily correspond to any historical or archaeological evidence; developing a synthetic view of the ethnology of proto-historic Italy is an incomplete and ongoing task.
The linguistJulius Pokorny carries the etymology somewhat further back. Conjecturing that the -a- was altered from an -o- during some prehistoric residence inIllyria he derives the names from an o-grade extension *swo-bho- of an extended e-grade *swe-bho- of the possessive adjective, *s(e)we-, of the reflexive pronoun, *se-, "oneself" (the source of English self). The result is a set of Indo-European tribal names (if not the endonym of the Indo-Europeans): GermanicSuebi andSemnones, Suiones; CelticSenones; SlavicSerbs andSorbs; ItalicSabelli,Sabini, etc., as well as a large number of kinship terms. The general concept is "our own kith and kin", Pokorny'svon eigener Art ("of our own kind"),Gesamtheit der eigenen Leute ("the totality of our own people"),Liebe ("love"),Sippegenossen ("clan comrades"),Sippenangehörigen ("clan members"), and the like.[6]
Samnium mostly lay on theApennine area; it was delimited byLatium to the north, byLucania to the south, byCampania to the west, and byApulia to the east. The principal cities of the region wereBovaiamom, renamedBovianum byLatins (today:Bojano or Boiano) andMaleventum (Maloenton inOscan),[citation needed] which was later renamedBeneventum by theRomans (today:Benevento). For most of their history the Samnites were landlocked, but during a brief period they controlled parts of both coasts of theItalian peninsula.
The Samnites were composed of at least four tribes: thePentri (capital:Bovianum), theCaraceni (principal cities:Cluviae, the modernCasoli, andJuvanum, the ruins of which are spread betweenTorricella Peligna andMontenerodomo), theCaudini (capital:Caudium, todayMontesarchio) and theHirpini (main cities:Beneventum,Abellinum,Aquilonia). They may have later been joined by theFrentani (capitalLarinum, the modernLarino).
The earliest written record of the people is a treaty with the Romans from 354 BC, which set their border at theLiris River. Shortly thereafter theSamnite Wars broke out; they won an important battle against the Roman army in 321 BC, and theirimperium reached its peak in 316 BC after further gains from the Romans. By 290 BC, the Romans were able to break the Samnites' power after some hard-fought battles. The Samnites were one of the Italian peoples that allied with KingPyrrhus of Epirus during thePyrrhic War. After Pyrrhus left forSicily, the Romans invaded Samnium and were crushed at theBattle of the Cranita hills, but after the defeat of Pyrrhus, the Samnites could not resist on their own and surrendered to Rome. Some of the Samnites joined and aidedHannibal during theSecond Punic War, but most stayed loyal. The Samnites and several other Italic people rebelled against Rome and started theSocial War (91–87 BC), after Romans refused to grant them Roman Citizenship. The war lasted almost three years, and resulted in a Roman victory. However, Samnites and other Italic tribes were granted Roman citizenship, to avoid another war. The Samnites supported thePopulares in thecivil war againstLucius Cornelius Sulla, but unfortunately for them, Sulla ended up winning the war and was declared the dictator of Rome. Sulla ordered all those who went against him to be punished. Thousands of people in Rome and all over Italy were brutally hunted down and killed. Samnites, who were one of the most prominent supporters of the Populares, were punished so severely that it was recorded "some of their cities have now dwindled into villages, some indeed being entirely deserted." Samnites did not play any prominent role in history after this, and they eventually became Latinized and assimilated into the Roman World[7][8]
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41°10′10″N14°14′10″E / 41.16944°N 14.23611°E /41.16944; 14.23611
