 Traditionalsambalterasi/belacan (shrimp paste), served in astone mortar with garlic and lime | |
| Course | Condiment or side dish |
|---|---|
| Place of origin | Maritime Southeast Asia[1][2][3] |
| Region or state | Java,Sumatera,Malay Peninsula,Borneo,Sulawesi,Mindanao |
| Associatedcuisine | Indonesia,Singapore,Malaysia,Timor-Leste,Brunei,Sri Lanka,Netherlands,South Africa andSuriname |
| Serving temperature | Room temperature |
| Main ingredients | Groundchilli pepper with salt, sugar, cooking oil,shallot, garlic, ginger,lemongrass,shrimp paste (terasi/belacan) andanchovies |
Sambal (Indonesian and Malay pronunciation:[ˈsambal]) is a category ofchilli-basedsauces orpastes originating inmaritime Southeast Asia, particularly within the cuisines ofIndonesia,Malaysia,Timor-Leste,Brunei,Singapore,southern Thailand andsouthern Philippines. Owing to historical connections and migration,sambal is also found inSouth Africa,Suriname and theNetherlands, while inSri Lanka a local adaptation is known assambol. InEnglish, it is commonly described as an “Indonesian condiment”[4][5][6] or “Malaysian condiment.”[7][2][8]
Traditionally,sambal is prepared bygrinding or pounding fresh ordried chillies with aromatics such as shallots, garlic, galangal and ginger, often combined withshrimp paste and seasoned with salt, sugar and acidic ingredients like lime juice or tamarind.Sambal may be served raw or cooked and can function as a condiment, a flavouring base or a standaloneside dish.
The history ofsambal is closely linked to the development ofspice use in the region. Before the arrival of chilli peppers from theAmericas in the 16th century, local communities preparedpungentrelishes using indigenous andOld World ingredients such as long pepper, ginger, galangal and andaliman. Chilli peppers, introduced throughPortuguese andSpanish trade networks, were rapidly adopted for their flavour, adaptability to tropical climates and compatibility with established cooking methods, soon replacing long pepper in most dishes. By the 18th century, chilli-basedsambals were recorded across theIndonesian archipelago and theMalay Peninsula, with each community developing variations shaped by local ingredients and culinary traditions.
Today,sambal exists in a wide range of regional forms acrossSoutheast Asia and in other parts of the world. While chilli remains the central ingredient, the addition of items such as fermenteddurian, torch ginger stems, coconut or sweet soy sauce produces distinctive variations linked to local ingredients and culinary traditions. Across Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore, southern Thailand and Sri Lanka, numerousvarieties ofsambal have developed, reflecting both regional diversity and shared historical influences.
Before the introduction of chilli peppers (Capsicum spp.) from theAmericas in the 16th and 17th centuries, the peoples of maritime Southeast Asia prepared spicyrelishes using indigenous andOld Worldpungent ingredients. Among the most prominent were long pepper (Piper retrofractum andPiper longum), ginger (Zingiber officinale), galangal (Alpinia galanga) and in certain regions, andaliman (Zanthoxylum acanthopodium), a local variety ofSichuan pepper.[9]
The exact emergence of sambal remains uncertain, as historical records do not provide clear evidence of its earliest development or geographic origin.[3] The widespread practice ofgiling, meaning the pounding, crushing or grinding of ingredients with amortar and pestle, is shared across manyAustronesian andSoutheast Asian cultures. The wordgiling itself, meaning “to grind” or “to crush,” is derived fromProto-Austronesian roots referring to the action of rolling, turning or crushing.
InJava,cabya (Javanese long pepper,Piper retrofractum) was the principal hot spice, recorded in inscriptions and literature from at least the 10th century CE during theMataram Kingdom.[10]Black pepper, introduced fromIndia by the 12th century, expanded the repertoire of pungent flavours. InNorth Sumatra, theBatak people usedandaliman as a defining seasoning in dishes such asarsik fish, often combined with ginger and torch ginger buds.[11] InMaluku and theBanda Islands, long pepper, ginger and galangal were blended with cloves and nutmeg in stews and preserved foods prior to the widespread adoption of chilli peppers.[12]
Across theMalay Peninsula, parts ofSumatra and coastalBorneo, historical Malay sources record the use oflong pepper (lada panjang) with ginger, galangal and black pepper in spice pastes.[13]Tomé Pires, aPortuguesephysician inMalacca between 1512 and 1514, noted thatbetel nut was chewed in the region for its warming properties.[14] Similar culinary traditions were recorded in mainland Southeast Asia, where long pepper featured in earlyThai andKhmer curry pastes alongside ginger, galangal, lemongrass and wild pepper leaves (Piper sarmentosum).[15][16]
In thepre-Hispanic Philippines, ginger was the principal source of pungency in broths such astinola, with long pepper (laya-laya) likely introduced via trade from the Indonesian islands.[17]InVietnam and the formerChampa territories, long pepper was known through maritime exchange and used mainly in medicinal preparations together with ginger and galangal.[15] Across the region, these spices were valued both for their flavour and for perceived health benefits, including aiding digestion and protecting against illness.[13]
In the 16th century,chilli peppers, native to the Americas, were introduced to the Southeast Asian archipelago primarily throughPortuguese andSpanish maritime trade routes.[18] ThePortuguese, after their arrival inGoa, India, in 1498, brought chilli peppers to their colonies and trading posts, includingMalacca in theMalay Peninsula in 1511, facilitating their spread throughout theMalay Archipelago.[19] Spanish traders likewise introduced chilli peppers to the Philippines by the mid-16th century.[20]
Thecapture of Malacca by thePortuguese underAfonso de Albuquerque in 1511 gave them control of a keymaritime trading hub, enabling them to influence the spice trade and culinary practices across Southeast Asia.[21] The introduction of chilli peppers complemented, and in many cases supplanted, traditional spices, becoming a defining element inregional cooking from the 16th century onward.[19] Portuguese and Spanish traders connected key ports along maritime routes through India, Malacca, theMoluccas and coastal Java, enabling the diffusion of chilli peppers across Southeast Asia. Initially, they supplemented or replaced native spices such as long pepper, black pepper, ginger and galangal, becoming increasingly important in local cuisines. Their adaptability totropical climates and compatibility with local tastes led to rapid adoption, gradually replacing long pepper in everyday cooking, although the latter remained in use in certain ceremonial and medicinal contexts.[13]
Chillies gained popularity for both economic and practical reasons. They allowed smaller amounts of costlier ingredients, such as meat or seafood, to be eaten with larger portions ofrice, the region'sstaple food. Their strong flavour also helped mask the taste of less fresh orfermented foods common in the humid tropical climate. Despite an initial sensitivity to capsaicin, many Southeast Asian populations developed a cultural preference for the pungency of chillies, a taste reinforced by the pleasurableendorphin response associated with their consumption.[16]
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By the late 16th and early 17th centuries, chillies had become fully integrated into the culinary landscape of the Southeast Asian archipelago. Fresh small chillies were commonly served whole or sliced alongside rice,noodles andside dishes.[20] In some cuisines, they were combined with other ingredients, for example ground peanuts in Thaisom tam, while chilli-based sauces and pastes incorporated local seasonings such as shrimp paste, garlic, shallots, lime juice, palm sugar and soy sauce, creating complex, layered flavours. This widespread adoption of chilli peppers laid the foundation for the development of distinctive regional condiments, including the sambals of Indonesia and Malaysia, Thailand'snam prik and Vietnam's tương ớt tỏi (chilli–garlic sauce).[16]
The introduction of chilli peppers into the archipelago quickly influenced existing spice-based condiments. Long before their arrival, communities across maritime Southeast Asia usedstone mortars and pestles to pound long pepper, ginger, aromatic roots and other spices intocoarse pastes. Chilli peppers were readily incorporated into these established methods alongside aromatics such as shallots, garlic, galangal andshrimp paste, creating the intense, layered flavours that came to characterisesambal and its many variants.[3][22]
Colonial-era accounts describe chilli-based condiments served with rice, fish and vegetable dishes.[22][3] By the 18th century,sambal had become a staple among diverse ethnic groups in the archipelago, including theJavanese,Minangkabau,Sundanese,Malay,Peranakans andBalinese, with numerous other communities developing their own local variations. These adaptations, shaped by available ingredients and cultural influences, laid the foundation for the wide variety of sambal found today.[22]
Beyond its role as a condiment,sambal was prepared in both raw and cooked forms, used as aside dish, flavouring base or cooking ingredient and adapted for everyday meals as well as festive occasions. Its versatility and compatibility with major dietary restrictions allowed it to cross cultural and religious boundaries, contributing to its status as a unifying element of Southeast Asian food culture.[21][23]
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Traditionalsambals are freshly made using traditional tools, such as a stonepestle and mortar. Sambal can be served raw or cooked. There are two main categories ofsambals,sambal masak (cooked) andsambal mentah (raw). Cookedsambal undergoes a cooking process resulting in a distinct flavour and aroma, while rawsambal is mixed with additional ingredients and usually consumed immediately.Sambal masak or cookedsambals are more prevalent in the western part of the Southeast Asian archipelago, including western Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei, whereassambal mentah orraw sambals are more common in eastern Indonesia.[24]
The chilli pepper, garlic,shallot and tomato are often freshly ground using a mortar, while theterasi orbelacan (shrimp paste) is fried or burned first to kill its pungent smell and release its aroma.Sambal might be prepared in bulk, as it can be easily stored in a well-sealed glass jar in the refrigerator for a week to be served with meals as a condiment.[25] However, some households and restaurants insist on making freshly preparedsambal just a few moments prior to consuming to ensure its freshness and flavour; this is known assambal dadak (lit. 'impromptu sambal' or'freshly made sambal'). Nevertheless, in mostwarung and restaurants, mostsambal is prepared daily in bulk and offered as a hot and
Today some brands of prepared, pre-packed, instant or ready-to-usesambal are available inwarung, traditional markets, supermarkets and convenience stores. Most are bottledsambal, with a few brands available in plastic or aluminiumsachet packaging. Compared to traditionalsambals, bottled instantsambals often have a finer texture, more homogeneous content and thicker consistency, liketomato ketchup, due to the machine-driven manufacturing process. Traditionally madesambals ground in a pestle and mortar usually have a coarse texture and consistency. Several brands produce bottledsambals such asHeinz ABCsambal terasi[26] and several variants ofsambalIndofood.[27][28] In the Netherlands a range of pre-packed sambals in glass or plastic jars is readily available from several brands (national and store brands) from almost all supermarkets andtokos.
The most common kinds of peppers used insambal are:
In Indonesia, sambal is a ubiquitous condiment with significantregional diversity. Across the archipelago, there are reported to be between 212 and 300 distinct varieties, ranging in intensity from mild to extremely hot.Sambal is typically made bygrinding or blending chilli peppers with various secondary ingredients such as garlic, shallots, tomatoes,shrimp paste (terasi) and lime juice. Preparation methods and flavour profiles vary according to local culinary traditions, available ingredients and cultural preferences.
Certain varieties are closely associated with specific regions or ethnic groups. Examples includesambal andaliman from theBatak people ofNorth Sumatra, which incorporatesZanthoxylum acanthopodium (andaliman pepper);[29]sambal balado from theMinangkabau ofWest Sumatra, asautéed chilli and tomato mixture often combined with eggs, eggplant or seafood;[30] andsambal matah from Bali, a rawsambal made with shallots, lemongrass and bird's eye chilli.[31]
Somesambals feature distinctive local ingredients, such assambal durian (sambaltempoyak), which uses fermented durian and is found inSumatra and parts ofKalimantan;[32]sambal bongkot fromBali, made with the stems ofEtlingera elatior (torch ginger);[33]sambal gami fromBontang inEast Kalimantan, cooked with variousshellfish;[34] andsambal terung asam from Kalimantan, prepared with the sourSolanum ferox.[35]
Fruit-basedsambals also occur, includingsambal buah fromPalembang, made withMangifera kemanga (kemang mango) andpineapple;sambal belimbing wuluh with sourbilimbi;[36] andsambal pencit fromCentral Java, which incorporates shredded unripemango.[25] Some recipes emphasise simplicity, such as sambal uyah-lombok, made only from raw chilli and salt, orsambal ulek, a plain raw chilli paste that can serve as a base for other preparations.
Regionalsambals often accompany specific dishes or are integral to local foodways. For example,sambal colo-colo fromAmbon is commonly paired withgrilled fish,sambal luat fromEast Nusa Tenggara is served with se’ismoked meat,[37] andsambal pecak is a Betawi condiment for fried fish or chicken.[38] TheBetawi version is more soupy and using ginger in thesambal.[39] Variants such assambal tuktuk from the Batak incorporate andaliman anddried fish, whilesambal taliwang fromLombok uses locally grown nagajolokia peppers.[40]
In Malaysia, Brunei, southern Thailand and Singapore,sambal is a common accompaniment to rice andnoodle dishes. While chilli andshrimp paste (belacan) form the base of many recipes, variations arise from differences in ingredient combinations, preparation methods and intended pairings.
One of the most well-known varieties issambal belacan, made by pounding fresh chillies with toasted belacan in a stone mortar, seasoned with sugar and lime juice. Traditionally, limau kesturi (calamansi) is used, though regular lime is a common substitute outside Southeast Asia. Optional ingredients includetomatoes or sweet–sour fruits such as unripemango. Thesambal is eaten with raw vegetables or ulam, often as part of a rice meal. AMalaysian Chinese variation involves frying the belacan with chilli before serving.
Sambal jeruk is prepared from green or red chillies withkaffir lime, or withvinegar and sugar in place of lime and is typically served as a condiment withnasi goreng or noodle dishes.Sambal tempoyak, found inPahang,Perak and parts ofBrunei, incorporates fermenteddurian (tempoyak) and may be served raw or cooked. In the raw form, pounded chillies are mixed with dried anchovies and eaten with tempoyak; in the cooked version, the mixture is stir-fried with shallots, lemongrass, turmeric leaf, anchovies and sometimespetai or tapioca shoots.Sambal hitam Pahang is another regional variety that incorporatesbelimbing to add a sour note.
Other varieties includesambal kicap, a blend of sweetsoy sauce, shallots, garlic and bird's eye chilli used as a dipping sauce for fried foods or as a condiment for soups;Sambal tumis, a stir-friedsambal made from dried and fresh chillies, belacan and gula Melaka, is a traditional accompaniment tonasi lemak, typically served with fried anchovies, peanuts, cucumber and boiled egg.[41]
In thesouthern Philippines, particularly among theTausug and otherMoro communities of theSulu Archipelago andMindanao,sambal refers to a spicy condiment or appetiser distinct from, but related to, the chilli-basedsambals of neighbouring Malaysia and Indonesia. It is commonly served as astarter, accompanied by sliced cucumber, chopped radish or green mango and is intended to stimulate the appetite before the main meal.[42] Typical ingredients include shallots, ginger, onions, chillies, peppercorns and other aromatics, which are pounded or blended to produce a piquant mixture.[42][43] In the Philippines, the term is also used for a sweet and spicy broth, known assambal soup, served withsatti, a breakfast dish of skewered grilled meat and rice balls.[44]
InSri Lanka,sambol is believed to have been introduced during the colonial era, derived from the chilli-basedsambal of theDutch East Indies. The term is said to have acquired its distinctive “o” when adopted intolocal usage.[45] Once introduced, the preparation was adapted to incorporate locally abundant ingredients such as chillies, grated coconut, lime juice and vegetables like nelum ala (lotus stem) and dambala (winged bean). Traditionally, the ingredients are combined using a wooden grinding device called a mirisgala, producing a spicy side dish that is typically consumed uncooked.
Sri Lankansambols differ from those of Southeast Asia in that they are generally prepared from fresh, uncooked ingredients. Commonly, fresh chillies, shallots, coconut and garlic are ground with a mortar and pestle, then mixed with a souring agent such as lime or lemon juice. The result resembles condiments such asMexicansalsa orLaotianjaew. Variations are often served as accompaniments to rice, bread or other staple foods.
A notable type isseeni sambol (also spelledsini sambol orseeni sambal), a hot–sweet preparation made from onions, crumbledMaldives fish and spices. Its name derives from theSinhala word for “sugar.”Pol sambol (thengkai sambal inTamil) is made from scraped coconut, onion, green and red chillies and lime juice, sometimes with the addition of Maldives fish ortomato in place of lime.
Lunumiris, literally “salt chilli,” is a paste of red chilli and sea salt, often enriched into kattasambal with onions, Maldives fish and lime juice. Other varieties include vaalaikai sambal, made from boiled and mashed unripeplantain, scraped coconut, chopped green chillies, onion, salt and lime juice. AmongJaffnaTamils, a preparation called campal is produced, bearing similarities to achutney.
Sambal is a common spicy condiment inDutch cuisine, introduced from Indonesia, a formerDutch colony. It is widely available insupermarkets and Asian specialty stores (tokos), with popular brands including Conimex and Koningsvogel. Common varieties sold in the Netherlands includesambal oelek, a simple chili paste andsambal badjak, a sweet, cookedsambal often prepared with onions.[46][47]
In theNetherlands,sambal is used as a condiment forDutch-Indonesian fusion dishes such asrijsttafel, nasi, bami and is also added to snacks and sandwiches. Among the available types,sambal oelek remains the most popular, though other ready-to-use jarred variants are also common.
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Sambal is a known condiment inSouth Africa, particularly withinCape Malay cuisine, which reflects the influence ofIndonesian andMalaysian ancestors brought to the region during thecolonial era.[48] South Africansambals are typically chili-based and often include ingredients such as chilies, garlic and shallots, sometimes combined with local flavorings. They are used to add spice and zest to dishes and have been adapted to local tastes, with variations including cucumbersambal. Through historical migration and cultural blending,sambal has become an integrated element ofSouth African cuisine while retaining its characteristic chili-based profile.[49]
Sambal is a commonly used condiment inSurinamese cuisine, particularly among theJavanese-Surinamese community, who brought their culinary traditions during the colonial era. It is typically served with rice, meats andtempeh, varieties includesambal prepared with chicken hearts, gizzards or liver, as well as tempehsambal, often spiced with the locally grownMadam Jeanette chili pepper for added heat.[50] Distinctive Surinamese versions incorporate local ingredients, such asSurinam cherry sambal andpeanut sambal (pinda sambal), which blend indigenous produce with Indonesia-inspired preparation methods.[51][52]Sambal in Suriname is commonly made at home for freshness but is also widely available in markets and restaurants.
Beyond its role as a condiment,sambal is frequently used as acooking ingredient, forming the base of many dishes that incorporate large amounts of chilli peppers. In Indonesia, preparations beginning with the termsambal goreng (“fried sambal”) refer to stir-friedsambal combined with a main ingredient. Common examples include potatoes (sambal goreng kentang), liver (sambal goreng hati), beef or buffalo skin crackers (sambal goreng krecek), anchovies (sambal goreng teri) andtempeh (sambal goreng kering tempe).
InMinangkabau cuisine, dishes prefixed withbalado, meaning “with chilli pepper,” similarly indicate the incorporation ofsambal into the recipe, as in udang balado (prawns withsambal).Sambal is also served alongside fresh vegetables, as in theSundanesesambal lalab, or paired with seafood such as squid or cuttlefish (sambal cumi orsambal sotong), dried prawns (sambal udang kering) and eel (sambal belut). Other variations include mushroom-basedsambal jamur, fish preparations likesambal ikan, which may be cooked into a moist curry-like form or reduced to dry floss (serunding ikan) and theJavanesesambal wader, made from yellow rasbora andsambal terasi, believed to have been served since theMajapahit era.[53]
InMalaysia,Singapore andBrunei,sambal features in popular dishes such as grilled stingray (Pari bakar), wherebarbecuedstingray is served with sambal paste and serunding daging, a slow-cooked beefsambal with a floss-like texture.Ayam masak sambal is often served atkenduri kahwin (wedding feasts), highlighting its place in celebratory meals.[54]
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