Thesalamander is anamphibian of the orderUrodela which once, like many real creatures, often was suppositiously ascribedfantastic and sometimesoccult qualities by pre-modern authors, as in the allegorical descriptions of animals inmedievalbestiaries. The legendary salamander is often depicted as a typical salamander in shape, with alizard-like form, but is usually ascribed an affinity withfire, sometimes specificallyelemental fire.
Ancient and medieval commentators ascribed many fantastical abilities to the naturalsalamander. Many of these qualities are rooted in verifiable traits of the natural creature but often exaggerated.[1] A large body oflegend,mythology, andsymbolism has developed around this creature over the centuries.Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition ofSystema Naturae of 1758 established the scientific description of the salamander and noted[2] the chief characteristics described by the ancients: the reported ability to live in fire, and the oily exudates.
The salamander were discussed allegorically in the writings of Christian fathers as well as in thePhysiologus andbestiaries.[3]
Aristotle, Pliny, Nicander, Aelian
The standard lore of the salamander as a creature enduring fire and extinguishing it was known by the Ancient Greeks, as far back as the 4th century BC, byAristotle (384–322 BC) and his successorTheophrastus (c. 371–c. 287 BC)[3] who gave such description of theσαλαμάνδρα (salamandra). The salamander's mastery over fire is described by Aristotle in hisHistory of Animals,[4][5] while hisGeneration of Animals offers the explanation that since there are creatures belonging to the elements of earth, air and water, salamander must be such a creature that belongs to theelement of fire.[6] Theophrastus refers to the salamander as a lizard ("saura") whose emergence is a sign of rain.[7]
The Ancient Greek physicianNicander (2nd century BC), in hisTherica, provides another early source of the lore of fire-resistance.[3][9] In hisAlexipharmaca, he describes the product of the salamander, referred to as the "sorcerer's lizard" (or "sorceress's lizard",φαρμακίδος σαύρη[a]) in the form of poisonous potion. The aftereffects of ingestion included symptoms of "inflammation of the tongue, chills, trembling of the joints, livid welts, and lack of mental lucidity".[11] A person who consumed this beverage ("draught") was thus enfeebled and reduced to crawling on all fours, as illustrated in the Paris manuscript of the work.[12][13] It is puzzling why people would so frequently ingest the debilitating salamander potion such as to merit a warning. One conjecture is that a person could have been secretly administered a dose of poison or charm by another.[14][b] Another possibility is the accidental introduction of it into food or drink.[16]Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) warns of its effects of (detrimental) hair loss,[20] though other sources hint at its controlled use for the "removal of unwanted hairs".[21][22]
Pliny described the salamander "an animal like a lizard in shape and with a body specked all over; it never comes out except during heavy showers and goes away the moment the weather becomes clear."[c][17] Pliny's description of physical markings suggest possible identification with thefire salamander (Salamandra salamandra), perhaps one of its subspecies.[1][23][24][d] Pliny even made the important distinction between salamanders and lizards, which are similar in shape but different in other respects, which was not systematized until modern times, whenbiologistsclassified lizards asreptiles and salamanders as amphibians.
Pliny offers the frigidity of their bodies as an alternate explanation to why the salamander can extinguish fire, considered implausible.[26][1] Note that Pliny offers this explanation in one part of his work,[17] while elsewhere he disbelieves the premise that the salamander has such fire-quenching capability, pointing out that if such an idea were true, it should be easy to demonstrate.[19][27] Pliny also reports that his contemporarySextius Niger denied the idea that salamanders could extinguish fire, though Sextius also believed honey-preserved salamander acted as anaphrodisiac when combined with food after it was properly de-headed, gutted, etc.[19]
Pliny also notes medicinal and poisonous properties, which are founded in fact on some level, since many species of salamander, including fire salamanders andalpine salamanders, excrete toxic, physiologically active substances. These substances are often excreted when the animal is threatened, which has the effect of deterring predators.[25] The extent of these properties is greatly exaggerated though, with a single salamander being regarded as so toxic that by twining around a tree it could poison the fruit and so kill any who ate them and by falling into a well could slay all who drank from it, and also infect bread baking on the kiln by touching the wood or stone underneath it.[e][19][18][29]
Roughly contemporary with Pliny is abas-relief of a salamander straddling the cross-beam of a balance scale in an anvil-and-forge scene found in the ruins of the Roman town ofPompeii. Liliane Bodson identifies the animal asSalamandra salamandra, the familiar fire salamander, and suspects that it might have been a sign for a blacksmith's shop.[30]
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Dioscorides (c. 40–90 AD) inDe materia medica also repeats the lore of the salamander extinguishing fire but refutes it. Miniature paintings of salamander engulfed in flame occurs inilluminated manuscript copies, such as theVienna Dioscurides ms. (med. gr. 1, see fig. right) and Morgan Library ms. (M. 652).[13] The salamander purportedly had septic (or caustic and corrosive) abilities, allegedly useful in the treatment ofleprosy.[31]
A few centuries later (late 2nd–early 3rd century AD), Greek-speaking Roman authorAelian describes salamanders as being drawn to the fires of forges and quenching them, to the annoyance of the blacksmiths. Aelian is also careful to note that the salamander is not born of fire itself, unlike thepyrausta.[32]
Talmud, Augustine,Physiologus
The legendary salamandra (סָלָמַנְדְּרָה /סלמנדרה) mentioned in theTalmud[3] was a creatureengendered in fire, and according to theHagigah 27a, anyone smeared with its blood allegedly became immune to fire.[33][34] A fire salamander appears where a fire is sustained at a spot for seven days and seven nights according to theMidrash, but the fire needs be maintained 7 years according toRashi (1040–1105), the primary commentator on the Talmud, describes the salamander as one which is produced by burning a fire in the same place for seven consecutive years.[34][35]
The Byzantine St.Gregory of Nazianzus (c. 329–390) referred to a creature that could dance in fire, which destroys other creatures, referring to the salamander, as indicated by his commentatorPseudo-Nonnus, who said it was the size of a lizard or a small crocodile, though land-dwelling.[13][f]
Saint Augustine (354–430) in theCity of God based the discussion of the miraculous aspects of monsters (including the salamander in fire) largely on Pliny'sNatural History.[37] Augustine used the example of the salamander to argue for the plausibility ofPurgatory as a stage of purification of the dead, where human souls live but are not consumed by fire.[38][1]
ThePhysiologus thought to have been originally written in Greek by an author inAlexandria was a treatise on animals in the Christian context, and the antecedent of the later medievalbestiaries. It is possible the inclusion of "salamander" reflects the author's familiarity with the author's native (African) fauna.[39] In thePhysiologus the salamander was allegoric for thethree men cast intoNebuchadnezzar's fiery furnace and survived.[3]
An early surviving illustrated example is theBern Physiologus of the 9th century, with the illustration (fig. right) described as "a satyr-like creature in a circular wooden tub".[40]
The 5th centuryHieroglyphica attributed toHorapollo (supposed original written inCoptic) also mentions the salamander entering the furnace and putting out its flames;[41] it is pointed out this work draws from Greek classical authors as well as thePhysiologus.[42][43][44]
The entry occurs inHieroglyphica, Book 2, Ch. LXII.[45][46][47] This "alleged hieroglyph" is probably dubious.[47][49] An editor of the text finds it "strange" that a "A Man Burned by Fire" is represented by the symbol of the salamander, which is incapable of being burnt.[45][47] As for the fragment saying it "destroys" with "each of its two heads" (ἑκατέρᾳ τῇ κεφαλῇ),[50] this is thought to be a contamination with the lore of the two-headedamphisbaena.[51]
After the end of the Classical era, depictions of the salamander became more fantastic and stylized, often retaining little resemblance to the animal described by ancient authors.[citation needed]
The medieval Europeanbestiaries contain fanciful pictorial depictions of salamanders. The oldest such illustration of the salamander, according to Florence McCulloch's treatise on bestiaries, occurs in the Bern 318 manuscript, but this actually the so-calledBern Physiologus of the 9th century, discussed above. Other iconographic examples come from bestiaries of the post-millennium, e.g., "a worm penetrating flames" (Bodleian 764, 12c.),[g] "a winged dog" ("GC",BnF fr. 1444. 13c.[h]), and "a small bird in flames" (BnF fr. 14970, 13c.[i]).[40]
The so-called second family group of bestiaries describe the salamander as not only impervious to fire, but the most poisonous of all poisonous creatures (or serpents). And (as Pliny had explained[53]) its presence in a tree infects all its apples,[54] and renders the water of the well poisonous to all who drink it. It dwells and survives in fire, and can extinguish fire as well.[52][55]
The bestiary of MS Bodley 764 (which is second family) has different incipit which reads "There is an animal called thedea, in Greek 'salamander' or 'stellio' in. Latin",[j] yet it still is followed by a separate chapter on thestellio newt.[56]
German polymathAlbertus Magnus described the incombustible asbestos cloth as "salamander's plumage" (pluma salamandri) in his work.[57] (Cf.§ Transmission of salamander-asbestos cloth lore below)
There seems to be a confused use of the salamander, as the symbol of passionate love and its opposite, its dispassionate restraint. The salamander in Christian art represents "faith over passion", according to one critic,[58] or a symbol of chastity in religious art, a view by Duchalais seconded byÉmile Mâle.[59][60] In therose windows ofNotre Dame de Paris, the figure of Chasity holds a shield depicting a salamander (though perhaps depicted rather bird-like).[60][k]
In medievalArthurian literature, the salamander who dwells in the fire of Agrimont[l] is invoked by the character Tschinotulander (var. Schionatulander, Schoynatulander) in professing his love for Sigune.[62] Tschinotulander owns an oriental made shield,[63] which "contains a living salamander" whose "proper" fiery heat enhances the powers of the surrounding gemstones"[64] but, it is explained by Lady Aventiure, it is the heathens who take the salamander as a love symbol, when it fact, it represents the opposite,unminne or "un-love".[66][m]
In the poem byPetrarch (1304–1374),[68] the salamander is used to represent "infinite, burning desire".[69]
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) wrote the following on the "salamãndra" : "This has no digestive organs, and gets no food but from the fire, in which it constantly renews its scaly skin. The salamander, which renews its scaly skin in the fire,―for virtue".[70][f]
Commentators in Europe still persisted in grouping "crawling things" (reptiles orreptilia in Latin) together and thus creatures in this group, which typically included salamanders (Latinsalamandrae),dragons (Latindracones orserpentes), andbasilisks (Latinbasilisci), were often associated, as in Conrad Lycosthenes'Prodigiorum ac ostentorum chronicon of 1557.[71]
Of all the traits ascribed to salamanders, the ones relating to fire have stood out most prominently. This connection probably originates from a behavior common to many species of salamander: hibernating in and under rotting logs. When wood was brought indoors and put on the fire, the creatures "mysteriously" appeared from the flames. The 16th-century Italian artistBenvenuto Cellini (1500–1571) famously recalled witnessing just such an appearance as a child in his autobiography.[72]Thomas Bulfinch in his commentary about Cellini's encounter explains that a salamander exudes a milky substance when frightened, which could plausibly protect it long enough to survive the fire as it scurried away.[72]
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Paracelsus (1493–1541) suggested that salamanders were theelementals offire,[73][74][76] which has had substantial influence on the role of salamanders in the occult. Paracelsus, contrary to the prevalent belief at the time, considered salamanders to be not devils,[77] but similar to humans, only lacking a soul (along with giants, dwarves, mermaids, elves, and elemental spirits in human form).[78][79] Salamanders due to their fiery environs cannot interact with humans as other elements may be able to do,[80] so, whereas theundine/nymph can marry a human and will seek to do so, to gain an immortal soul,[81] it is rare for other elements to marry humans, though they may develop a bond and become a human's servant.[82]
Paracelsus also considered thewill-o'-the-wisp to be "monsters" or the "misbegotten" of the salamander spirit.[84]
Salamander iconography associated with Paracelsus
Frequently reprinted as Paracelsus's "salamander" image[85][86][87][88] is the illustration of a salamander is presented in the (influential[89]) 20th-century occult work byManly P. Hall which attributes the illustration toParacelsus.[90] This illustration appears to originate in a 1527 anti-papal tract byAndreas Osiander andHans Sachs, where it is identified as "the Pope as a monster".[91] Its association with Paracelsus derives from hisAuslegung der Magischen Figuren im Carthäuser Kloster zu Nũrnberg in which the author presents explanations of some illustrations found in aCarthusian monastery in Nuremberg; the illustration in question he labels as "a salamander or abominable worm with a human head and crowned with a crown and aPope's hat thereon",[92] which is later explained to represent the Pope.[93][n][o]
A later alchemical text, theBook of Lambspring [de] (Das Buch Lambspring, 1556), depicts a salamander as a white bird, being kept in fire by a man with a polearm. The text in German states the salamander while in fire exhibits an excellent color hue, while the Latin inscription connects this to thephilosopher's stone (lapidis philosophorum).[96] But in theBook of Lambspring inserted intoLucas JennisMusaeum Hermeticum (1625), an illustration with the same composition (man holding apolearm) depicts the salamander as a lizard-like animal with star-like markings (see right). The author is also styled Lamspring, and hisBook bears the titleTractatus de lapide philosophorum with 15 pictures. The first 10 explains the Arabic alchemical process of extracting spirit/animus from the corpus, culminating in the crowned king and salamander.[97]
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Conrad Gessner provided two illustrations of the salamander in his work, one realistically lifelike, the other fanciful (with mammal-like head), for comparison.[98][99][100] In the caption to the lower image, he explains that the upper image was drawn from life, whereas in the lower image someone supposed the salamandra to be the same as thestellio ("starred" newt), and based on book knowledge, drew literal stars down its back.[98][102]
Francis Bacon known for a more scientific approach, discusses inSylva sylvarum (1626/1627) the possibility of the salamander's fire-resistance, stating that if one's hand is cloaked in a hermetic enough seal to shut out the fire, e.g., using egg whites, igniting the hand afterwards with alcohol will be endurable.[103]
Thomas Browne, a follower of Baconian principles, in hisPseudodoxia Epidemica (1646) also discusses the salamander at more length, including esoterica from the past, such as the salamander's use ashieroglyphic symbol.[47]
C.S Lewis mentions salamanders living in the fire itself, liking small dragons in his bookThe Chronicles of Narnia, sixth book, The Silver Chair, chapter thirteen, The Bottom of the World.
"Oh no, your Honour. Not we. It's only salamanders live in the fire itself.""What kind of beast is your salamander?" asked the Prince Rilian."It is hard to tell their kind, you Honour," said Golg."For they are too white-hot to look at but they are most like small dragons. They speak to us out of the fire. They are wonderfully clever with their tongues: very witty and eloquent."
In European heraldry, the salamander is typically depicted as either a lizard or a dragon within a blazing fire. In some instance, the heraldic salamander resembles a fire-breathing dog.[104][105]
Francis I of France used a salamander as his personal emblem, as evidenced on the relief at theChâteau de Chambord. And the king's motto was "Nutrico et extinguo (I nurture, I extinguish)".[104][106][107]
In French folklore, it has been alleged that the salamander's highly toxic breath was enough to swell a person until their skin broke.[108] InAuvergne, the salamander was known by such names assoufflet (meaning 'bellows') orsouffle ('breath') orenfleboeuf ("beef-puffer"), and was thought capable of killing cattle, and inBerry was the belief salamander could cause cattle to swell, even from a considerable distance.[109] There was also a supposed black and yellow lizard known aslebraude locally, with similar attached lore: it only breathed once every 24 hours, but the exhalation killed any humans or plants or trees.[109] In Auvergne, it was told that the only way to eradicate thelebraude was to keep it isolated in confined space for 24 hours, and let its breath kill itself.[108] In the 18th century,Bretons had a taboo against calling the salamander by its true name, for fear people would come to harm if the creature heard it.[110]
A legend fromLausitz recorded in German tells of a sorcerer who kept a salamander sealed in bottle but could be unleashed on his enemies. While the magician was staying atLauban, the broom maid's daughter tampered with the bottle and released the salamander. The spirit announced his gratitude to the townsfolk, and thereafter would warn them of an outbreak of fire by flying above the house in danger in the guise of a pyramid and serpent, and came to be calledFeuerpuhz, a name that alludes to blowing of air, or swooshing out of a bottle.[111]
According to the sixteenth century Chinese pharmacopoeic treatiseBencao Gangmu, the Chinese "salamander" (actually thehuoshu火鼠 "fire-rat") grew long hair that could be woven into cloth which was unharmed by fire and could be cleaned by burning, hence calledhuo huan bu (火浣布 "cloths washed with fire" or "fire-laundered cloth").[112] The work is a compilation of past works, many ancient, and though its entry for the "fire rat" does not clarify its sources, similar description of the fire-laundered cloth could be found inGe Hong's[p]Baopuzi (4th century): both works claim such fireproof cloth could be made from both animal hair and plant material.[113] Ge Hong's Chinese account of the "fire rat" is characterized as a "disguise of the classical salamander" byBerthold Laufer.[114]
Laufer notes that Arab or Persian writers gave a mixed description of their versions of the salamandar, writtensamandal orsamandar, sometimes as a bird or phoenix, but also as amarten-like animal, said to yield cloth which can be laundered in fire, similar to Chinese lore.[115] Such description of "samandar" as marten-like and yielding incombustible cloth was attested by the writer (Lutfullah Halimi,[116] d. 1516) cited byd'Herbelot[117] and (as "samandal") byal-Damiri (d. 1415).[118] As for the commingling of the creature with the bird-kind, theYaqut al-Hamawi (d. 1229) recorded the popular belief that asbestos came from phoenix feathers,[119] and this is echoed by the European notion of asbestos as "salamander's plumage".[118]
Laufer was convinced such Arab lore had been transmitted into Europe in the 10th or 11th century, via Byzantium and Spain[120] (though the Arab literature he cited above did not date so far back). The earliest attestation in medieval Europe of associating the salamander with an unburnable cloth occurs in the ProvençalNaturas d'alcus auzels (13th century) according to Laufer.[121] Also the German scholarAlbertus Magnus had called the incombustible clothpluma salamandri ("salamander's plumage") in his work.[122]
Some commentators also vaguely ascribe the introduction into Europe via early travellers toChina[when?] were shown garments supposedly woven from such "salamander's" hair or wool. Such garments were, of course, actually made ofasbestos cloth.[72][123]
According toT. H. White,Prester John had a robe made from it; the "Emperor of India" possessed a suit made from a thousand skins; andPope Alexander III had a tunic which he valued highly.[29]William Caxton (1481) wrote: "This Salemandre berithe wulle, of which is made cloth and gyrdles that may not brenne in the fyre."[29]
Randle Holme III (1688) wrote: "...I have several times put [salamander hair] in the Fire and made it red hot and after taken it out, which being cold, yet remained perfect wool".[29][124]
An alternative interpretation was that this material was a kind ofsilk: A 12th-century letter supposedly from Prester John says, "Our realm yields the worm known as the salamander. Salamanders live in fire and makecocoons, which our court ladies spin and use to weave cloth and garments. To wash and clean these fabrics, they throw them into flames".[125]Marco Polo still employed the term "salamander" but recognized this was no creature, but rather an incombustible substance mined from earth, and had visited the production site.[57][124]
The beast's ability to withstand fire has led to its name being applied to a variety of heating devices, includingspace heaters,ovens and cooking and blacksmithing devices, dating back at least to the 17th century.[126][127]
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