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Sakoku (鎖国 / 鎖國;lit. 'chained country') is the most common name for theisolationistforeign policy of theJapaneseTokugawa shogunate under which, during theEdo period (from 1603 to 1868), relations and trade between Japan and other countries were severely limited, and almost all foreign nationals were banned from entering Japan, while common Japanese people were kept from leaving the country. The policy was enacted by the shogunate government (bakufu) underTokugawa Iemitsu through a number of edicts and policies from 1633 to 1639.
Japan was not completely isolated under thesakoku policy.Sakoku was a system in which strict regulations were placed on commerce and foreign relations by the shogunate and certain feudal domains (han). There was extensive trade withChina through the port ofNagasaki, in the far west of Japan, with a residential area for the Chinese. The policy stated that the onlyEuropean influence permitted was theDutchfactory atDejima in Nagasaki. Western scientific, technical and medical innovations flowed into Japan throughRangaku ("Dutch learning").
Trade withKorea was limited to theTsushima Domain, today part ofNagasaki Prefecture, and thewakan in Choryang, part of present-dayBusan. There were also diplomatic exchanges done through theJoseon Tongsinsa from Korea. Trade with theAinu people was limited to theMatsumae Domain inHokkaido, and trade with theRyūkyū Kingdom took place inSatsuma Domain (present-dayKagoshima Prefecture).[1] Apart from these direct commercial contacts in peripheral provinces, trading countries sent regular missions to theshōgun inEdo and atOsaka Castle.
The policy ended after 1853 when thePerry Expedition commanded byMatthew C. Perry forced theopening of Japan to American, and by extension, Western trade through a series oftreaties, called theConvention of Kanagawa.
The termsakoku originates from the manuscript workSakoku-ron (鎖國論) written by Japanese astronomer and translatorShizuki Tadao in 1801. Shizuki invented the word while translating the works of the 17th-century German travellerEngelbert Kaempfer, namely his book 'the history of Japan', posthumously released in 1727.[2]
No Japanese ship ... nor any native of Japan, shall presume to go out of the country; whoever acts contrary to this, shall die, and the ship with the crew and goods aboard shall be sequestered until further orders. All persons who return from abroad shall be put to death. Whoever discovers a Christian priest shall have a reward of 400 to 500 sheets of silver and for every Christian in proportion. AllNamban (Portuguese and Spanish) who propagate the doctrine of the Catholics, or bear this scandalous name, shall be imprisoned in theOnra, or common jail of the town. The whole race of the Portuguese with their mothers, nurses and whatever belongs to them, shall be banished to Macao. Whoever presumes to bring a letter from abroad, or to return after he hath been banished, shall die with his family; also whoever presumes to intercede for him, shall be put to death. No nobleman nor any soldier shall be suffered to purchase anything from the foreigner.
It is conventionally regarded that the shogunate imposed and enforced thesakoku policy in order to remove the colonial and religious influence of primarilySpain andPortugal, which were perceived as posing a threat to the stability of the shogunate and to peace in thearchipelago. The increasing number ofCatholic converts in southern Japan (mainlyKyūshū) was a significant element of that which was seen as a threat. Based on work conducted by Japanese historians in the 1970s, some scholars have challenged this view, believing it to be only a partial explanation of political reality.
Before the Tokugawa,Toyotomi Hideyoshi had previously begun to turn against the European missionaries after the Spanish conquest of the Philippines began, and the gradual progress of the Spanish there led to increasing hostility from the Tokugawa as well.[4][5]
The motivations for the gradual strengthening of the maritime prohibitions during the early 17th century should be considered within the context of the Tokugawabakufu's domestic agenda. One element of this agenda was to acquire sufficient control over Japan's foreign policy so as to not only guarantee social peace, but also to maintain Tokugawa supremacy over the other powerful lords in the country, particularly thetozama daimyō.
Thesedaimyō had used East Asian trading linkages to profitable effect during theSengoku period, which allowed them to build up their military strength as well. By restricting the ability of thedaimyō to trade with foreign ships coming to Japan or pursue trade opportunities overseas, the Tokugawabakufu could ensure none would become powerful enough to challenge thebakufu's supremacy. This is consistent with the generally agreed rationale for the Tokugawabakufu's implementation of the system of alternate attendance, orsankin-kōtai.
Directing trade predominantly throughNagasaki, which came underToyotomi Hideyoshi's control in 1587, would enable the bakufu, through taxes and levies, to bolster its own treasury. This was no small matter, as lack of wealth had limited both the precedingKamakurabakufu and theMuromachibakufu in crucial ways.[6] The focus on the removal of Western and Christian influence from the Japanese archipelago as the main driver of thekaikin could be argued to be a somewhateurocentric reading of Japanese history, although it is a common perception.[7]
Nevertheless, Christianity and the two colonial powers it was most strongly associated with were seen as genuine threats by the Tokugawabakufu. Once the remnants of the Toyotomi clan had been defeated in 1615, shogunTokugawa Hidetada, as well as his retired yet still-influential father,Tokugawa Ieyasu, turned their attention to the sole remaining credible challenge to Tokugawa supremacy. Religious challenges to central authority were taken seriously by thebakufu as ecclesiastical challenges by armed Buddhist monks were common during thesengoku period. TheEmpress Meishō (r. 1629–1643) also had grave doubts when she heard about how the Spanish and Portuguese were invading and colonising in theNew World, and thought that Japan would soon become one of the many countries in their possession.
ProtestantEnglish andDutch traders reinforced this perception by accusing theSpanish andPortuguese missionaries of spreading the religion systematically, as part of a claimed policy of culturally dominating and colonizing Asian countries. The Dutch and English were generally seen by the Japanese to be able to separate religion and trade, while theirIberian counterparts were looked upon with much suspicion. The Dutch, who were at war with the Spanish and eager to take over trade from both the Spanish and Portuguese, had no problems reinforcing this view.
The number ofChristians in Japan had been steadily rising due to the efforts of missionaries, such asFrancis Xavier anddaimyō converts. The direct trigger which is said to have spurred the imposition ofsakoku was theShimabara Rebellion of 1637–38, an uprising of 40,000 mostly Christian peasants. In the aftermath, the shogunate accused missionaries of instigating the rebellion, expelled them from the country, and strictly banned the religion on penalty of death. The remaining Japanese Christians, mostly in Nagasaki, formed underground communities and came to be calledKakure Kirishitan.
All contact with the outside world became strictly regulated by the shogunate, or by the domains (Tsushima, Matsumae, and Satsuma) assigned to the task. Dutch traders were permitted to continue commerce in Japan only by agreeing not to engage in missionary activities. Today, the Christian percentage of the population (1%) in Japan remains far lower than in otherEast Asian countries such asChina (3%),Vietnam (7%), andSouth Korea (29%).[8]
Thesakoku policy was also a way of controlling commerce between Japan and other nations, as well as asserting its new place in the East Asian hierarchy. The Tokugawa had set out to create their own small-scale international system where Japan could continue to access the trade in essential commodities such as medicines, and gain access to essential intelligence about happenings in China while avoiding having to agree to a subordinate status within theChinese tributary system.
Japan's generally constructive official diplomatic relationship withJoseon Korea allowed regular embassies (Tongsinsa) to be dispatched by Korea to Japan. Together with the brisk trade betweenTsushima and Korea, as well as the presence of Japanese in theBusanwakan, Japan was able to access Chinese cultural, intellectual and technological developments throughout theEdo period. At the time of the promulgation of the strictest versions of the maritime prohibitions, theMing dynasty had lost control of much of China and it was unnecessary, and perhaps undesirable, for Japan to pursue official diplomatic relations with either of the Ming or theQing governments while the issue of imperial legitimacy was unsettled.
Japan was able to acquire the imported goods it required through intermediary trade with the Dutch and through theRyukyu Islands. The Japanese actually encouraged theRyūkyū Kingdom's rulers to maintain a tributary relationship with China, even though theShimazu clan had surreptitiously established great political influence in the Ryukyu Islands.[6] The Qing became much more open to trade after it had defeated the Ming loyalists in Taiwan, and thus Japan's rulers felt even less need to establish official relations with China.
Liberalizing challenges tosakoku came from within Japan's elite in the 18th century, but they came to nothing.[10] Later on, thesakoku policy was the main safeguard against the total depletion of Japanese mineral resources—such as silver and copper—to the outside world. However, while silver exportation through Nagasaki was controlled by the shogunate to the point of stopping all exportation, the exportation of silver through Korea continued in relatively high quantities.[11]
The way Japan kept abreast of Western technology during this period was by studying medical and other texts in theDutch language obtained through trade atDejima. This developed into a blossoming field in the late 18th century which was known asRangaku (Dutch studies). It became obsolete after the country was opened and thesakoku policy collapsed. Thereafter, many Japanese students (e.g.,Kikuchi Dairoku) were sent to study in foreign countries, and many foreign employees were employed in Japan (seeo-yatoi gaikokujin).
The policies associated withsakoku ended with theConvention of Kanagawa in response to demands made byCommodore Perry in 1854.
Trade prospered during thesakoku period, and though relations and trade were restricted to certain ports, the country was far from closed. Even as the shogunate expelled the Portuguese, they simultaneously engaged in discussions with Dutch and Korean representatives to ensure that the overall volume of trade did not suffer.[12]
Thus, it has become increasingly common in scholarship in recent decades to refer to the foreign relations policy of the period not assakoku, implying a totally secluded,isolated, and "closed" country, but by the termkaikin (海禁,lit. "maritime prohibitions") used in documents at the time, and derived from the similar Chinese concepthaijin.[13]
During thesakoku period, Japan traded with five entities, through four "gateways". The largest was the private Chinese trade at Nagasaki (who also traded with theRyūkyū Kingdom), where theDutch East India Company was also permitted to operate. TheMatsumae clandomain in Hokkaido (then calledEzo) traded with theAinu people. Through theSō clandaimyō of Tsushima, there were relations withJoseon-dynasty Korea. Ryūkyū, a semi-independent kingdom for nearly all of the Edo period, was controlled by theShimazu clandaimyō ofSatsuma Domain.[11]
Tashiro Kazui has shown that trade between Japan and these entities was divided into two kinds: Group A in which he places China and the Dutch, "whose relations fell under the direct jurisdiction of theBakufu at Nagasaki" and Group B, represented by the Korean Kingdom and the Ryūkyū Kingdom, "who dealt with Tsushima (the Sō clan) and Satsuma (the Shimazu clan) domains respectively".[11]
Many items traded from Japan to Korea and the Ryūkyū Kingdom were eventually shipped to China. In theRyūkyū Islands and Korea, the clans in charge of trade built trading towns outside Japanese territory where commerce actually took place.[12] Due to the necessity for Japanese subjects to travel to and from these trading posts, this resembled something of an outgoing trade, with Japanese subjects making regular contact with foreign traders in essentiallyextraterritorial land.[14]
Commerce with Chinese and Dutch traders in Nagasaki took place on an island calledDejima, separated from the city by a narrow strait; foreigners could not enter Nagasaki from Dejima, nor could Japanese civilians enter Dejima without special permission or authorization. For the island's inhabitants, conditions on Dejima were humiliating; the police of Nagasaki could harass them at will, and at all times a strong Japanese guard was stationed on the narrow bridge to the mainland in order to prevent them from leaving the island.[14]
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Many isolated attempts to end Japan's seclusion were made by expanding Western powers during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. American, Russian and French ships all attempted to engage in a relationship with Japan but were rejected.
These largely unsuccessful attempts continued until July 8, 1853, when CommodoreMatthew Perry of theU.S. Navy with fourwarships:Mississippi,Plymouth,Saratoga, andSusquehanna steamed into the Bay ofEdo (Tokyo) and displayed the threatening power of his ships'Paixhans guns. He demanded that Japan open to trade with the United States. These ships became known as thekurofune, theBlack Ships.
The following year, at theConvention of Kanagawa (March 31, 1854), Perry returned with eight ships and forced the Shogun to sign the "Treaty of Peace and Amity", establishing formal diplomatic relations between Japan and the United States. TheUnited Kingdom signed theAnglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty at the end of 1854.
Between 1852 and 1855, AdmiralYevfimiy Putyatin of theRussian Navy made several attempts to obtain from the Shogun favourable trade terms for Russia. In June 1853, he brought to Nagasaki Bay a letter from the Foreign MinisterKarl Nesselrode and demonstrated toTanaka Hisashige a steam engine, probably the first ever seen in Japan. His efforts culminated in the signing of theTreaty of Shimoda in February 1855.
Within five years, Japan had signed similar treaties with other western countries. TheHarris Treaty was signed with the United States on July 29, 1858. These "Ansei Treaties" were widely regarded by Japanese intellectuals as unequal, having been forced on Japan throughgunboat diplomacy, and as a sign of the West's desire to incorporate Japan into theimperialism that had been taking hold of the continent. Among other measures, they gave the Western nations unequivocal control of tariffs on imports and the right ofextraterritoriality to all their visiting nationals. They would remain a sticking point in Japan's relations with the West up to the turn of the 20th century.
Several missions were sent abroad by thebakufu, in order to learn about Western civilization, revise treaties, and delay the opening of cities and harbours to foreign trade.
AJapanese Embassy to the United States was sent in 1860, on board theKanrin Maru.
In the 1861Tsushima Incident, a Russian fleet tried to force open a harbour not officially opened to foreign trade with foreign countries, but it was repelled with the help of the British.
AnEmbassy to Europe was sent in 1862, and aSecond Embassy to Europe in 1863. Japan also sent a delegation and participated to the1867 World Fair in Paris.
Other missions, distinct from those of the Shogunate, were also sent to Europe, such as theChōshū Five, and missions by the fief ofSatsuma.
China under theMing andQing dynasties as well asJoseon had implemented isolationist policies before Japan did, starting with the Ming implementingHaijin from 1371. Unlikesakoku, foreign influences outside East Asia were banned by the Chinese and Koreans as well, whileRangaku allowed Western ideas other than Christianity to be studied in Japan.
China was forced to open up in theTreaty of Nanking and in subsequent treaties, following its defeat in theFirst Opium War. Joseon, which had developed a reputation as ahermit kingdom, was forced out of isolationism by Japan in theJapan–Korea Treaty of 1876, making use ofgunboat diplomacy which had been used by the United States to force Japan to open up.
Paraguay under the rule of DictatorJosé Gaspar Rodriguez de Francia in 1814-1840 also had a similar isolationist policy. This ended, although gradually, during the governments ofCarlos Antonio López andFrancisco Solano López.
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