The dates of Patrick's life cannot be fixed with certainty, but there is general agreement that he was active as a missionary in Ireland during the fifth century. A recent biography[6] on Patrick shows a late fourth-century date for the saint is possible.[7] According to tradition dating from the early Middle Ages, Patrick was the firstbishop of Armagh andPrimate of Ireland, and is credited with bringingChristianity to Ireland (despite evidence of some earlier Christian presence on the island), and converting Ireland frompaganism in the process.[8]
In Patrick's autobiographicalConfessio, he writes that when he was about sixteen, he was captured by Irish pirates from his home in Britain and taken as aslave to Ireland. He writes that he lived there for six years as an animalherder before escaping and returning to his family. After becoming a cleric, he returned to spread Christianity in northern and western Ireland. In later life, he served as a bishop, but little is known about where he worked. By the seventh century, he had already come to be revered as the patron saint of Ireland.
TwoLatin works survive which are generally accepted as having been written by St. Patrick: theDeclaration (Latin:Confessio)[9] and theLetter to the soldiers of Coroticus (Latin:Epistola),[10] from which come the only generally accepted details of his life.[11] TheDeclaration is the more biographical of the two. In it, Patrick gives a short account of his life and his mission. Most available details of his life are from subsequenthagiographies andannals, which have considerable value but lack theempiricism scholars depend on today.[12]
Hagiography records other names he is said to have borne.Tírechán's seventh-centuryCollectanea gives "Magonus, that is, famous; Succetus, that is, god of war; Patricius, that is, father of the citizens; Cothirthiacus, because he served four houses of druids."[13] "Magonus" appears in the ninth-centuryHistoria Brittonum asMaun, descending from British*Magunos, meaning "servant-lad".[13] "Succetus", which also appears inMuirchú moccu Machtheni's seventh-centuryLife asSochet,[13] is identified by Mac Neill as "a word of British origin meaning swineherd".[14] Cothirthiacus also appears asCothraige in the 8th-century biographical poem known asFiacc's Hymn and a variety of other spellings elsewhere, and is taken to represent aPrimitive Irish: *Qatrikias, although this is disputed. Harvey argues thatCothraige "has the form of a classic Old Irish tribal (and therefore place-) name", noting thatAil Coithrigi is a name for theRock of Cashel, and the place-namesCothrugu andCatrige are attested in CountiesAntrim andCarlow.[15]
Muirchú summarizes that these four names correspond to Patrick's different roles at different periods of this life: "Patrick son of <C>alforni(us) had four names: Sochet when he was born, Cothriche when he was a slave, Mauonius when he studied, Patrick when he was consecrated."[16]
Dating
The reputed burial place of Saint Patrick inDownpatrick
The dates of Patrick's life are uncertain; there are conflicting traditions regarding the year of his death. His own writings provide no evidence for any dating more precise than the 5th century generally. His Biblical quotations are a mixture of theOld Latin version and theVulgate, completed in the early 5th century, suggesting he was writing "at the point of transition from Old Latin to Vulgate",[17] although it is possible the Vulgate readings may have been added later, replacing earlier readings.[18] TheLetter to Coroticus implies that theFranks were still pagans at the time of writing;[19] their conversion to Christianity is dated to the period 496–508.[20]
TheIrish annals date Patrick's arrival in Ireland at 432, but they were compiled in the mid-6th century at the earliest.[19] The date 432 was probably chosen to minimise the contribution ofPalladius, who was known to have been sent to Ireland in 431, and maximise that of Patrick.[21] A variety of dates are given for his death. In 457 "the elder Patrick" (Irish:Patraic Sen) is said to have died: this may refer to the death of Palladius, who according to theBook of Armagh was also called Patrick.[21] In 461/2 the annals say that "Here some record the repose of Patrick";[22]: 19 in 492/3 they record the death of "Patrick, the arch-apostle (or archbishop and apostle) of the Scoti", on 17 March, at the age of 120.[22]: 31
Patrick was born at theend of Roman rule in Britain. His birthplace is not known with any certainty; some traditions place it in what is now England—one identifying it as Glannoventa (modernRavenglass inCumbria). In 1981, Thomas argued at length for the areas ofBirdoswald, twenty miles (32 km) east of Carlisle onHadrian's Wall.[29] In 1993, Paor glossed it as "[probably near]Carlisle". There is a Roman town known asBannaventa in Northamptonshire, which is phonically similar to the Bannavem Taburniae mentioned in Patrick's confession, but this is probably too far from the sea.[30] Claims have also been advanced for locations in present-dayScotland, with theCatholic Encyclopedia stating that Patrick was born inKilpatrick, Scotland.[31] In 1926 Eoin MacNeill also advanced a claim forGlamorgan in south Wales,[32] possibly the village ofBanwen, in the Upper Dulais Valley, which was the location of a Roman marching camp.[33]
Patrick's father, Calpurnius, is described as adecurion (senator and tax collector) of an unspecifiedRomano-British city, and as adeacon; his grandfather Potitus was apriest from Bonaven Tabernia.[34] However, Patrick's confession states he was not an active believer in his youth, and considered himself in that period to be "idle and callow".[35]
According to theConfession of Saint Patrick, he was captured at the age of sixteen from his family's Villa at "Bannavem Taburniae" by a group of Irish pirates.[36] They took him to Ireland where he was enslaved and held captive for six years. Patrick writes in theConfession[36] that the time he spent in captivity was critical to his spiritual development. He explains that the Lord had mercy on his youth and ignorance, and afforded him the opportunity to be forgiven his sins and to grow in his faith through prayer.
TheDál Riata raiders who kidnapped him introduced him to the Irish culture that would define his life andreputation.[35] While in captivity, he worked as a shepherd and strengthened his relationship with God through prayer, eventually leading him to deepen his faith.[36]
He writes that after six years of captivity he heard a voice telling him that he would soon go home, and then that his ship was ready. Fleeing his master, he travelled to a port two hundred miles away,[37] where he found a ship and with difficulty persuaded the captain to take him. After three days' sailing, they landed, presumably in Britain, and apparently all left the ship, walking for 28 days in a "wilderness" and becoming faint from hunger. After Patrick prayed for sustenance, they encountered a herd ofwild boar;[38] since this was shortly after Patrick had urged them to put their faith in God, his prestige in the group was greatly increased. After various adventures, he returned home to his family, now in his early twenties.[39] Patrick's account of his escape from slavery and return home to Britain is recounted in hisDeclaration.[40]
Patrick recounts that he had a vision a few years after returning home:
I saw a man coming, as it were from Ireland. His name was Victoricus, and he carried many letters, and he gave me one of them. I read the heading: "The Voice of the Irish". As I began the letter, I imagined in that moment that I heard the voice of those very people who were near the wood ofFoclut, which is beside the western sea—and they cried out, as with one voice: "We appeal to you, holy servant boy, to come and walk among us."[44]
A.B.E. Hood suggests that the Victoricus of St. Patrick's vision may be identified with SaintVictricius, bishop ofRouen in the late fourth century, who had visited Britain in an official capacity in 396.[45] However, Ludwig Bieler disagrees.[46]
Much of theDeclaration concerns charges made against Patrick by his fellow Christians at a trial. What these charges were, he does not say explicitly, but he writes that he returned the gifts which wealthy women gave him, did not accept payment forbaptisms, nor forordaining priests, and indeed paid for many gifts to kings and judges, and paid for the sons of chiefs to accompany him. It is concluded, therefore, that he was accused of some sort of financial impropriety, and perhaps of having obtained his bishopric in Ireland with personal gain in mind.[47] The condemnation might have contributed to his decision to return to Ireland. According to Patrick's most recent biographer, Roy Flechner, theConfessio was written in part as a defence against his detractors, who did not believe that he was taken to Ireland as a slave, despite Patrick's vigorous insistence that he was.[48]
"Patrick going toTara", illustration from a 1904 book
Patrick eventually returned to Ireland, probably settling in the west of the island, where in later life he became a bishop and ordained subordinate clerics. Acting on his vision, Patrick returned to Ireland as a Christian missionary.[36] According to Bury, his landing place wasWicklow,County Wicklow, at the mouth of the river Inver-dea, which is now called the Vartry.[49] Bury suggests that Wicklow was also the port through which Patrick made his escape after his six years' captivity, though he does not offer strong evidence to support this.[50] Tradition has it that Patrick was not welcomed by the locals and was forced to leave and seek a more welcoming landing place further north; he rested for some days at the islands near toSkerries, County Dublin, one of which bears the name of Inis-Patrick. The first sanctuary dedicated by Patrick was atSaul. Shortly thereafter Benin (orBenignus), son of the chieftain Secsnen, joined Patrick's group.[43]
Stained glass window inCarlow Cathedral, showing Saint Patrick preaching to Irish kings
From theConfessio, something can be seen of Patrick's mission. He writes that he "baptised thousands of people",[51] even planning to convert his slavers.[40] He ordained priests to lead the new Christian communities. He converted wealthy women, some of whom becamenuns in the face of family opposition. He also dealt with the sons of kings, converting them too.[52] TheConfessio is generally vague about the details of his work in Ireland, though giving some specific instances. This is partly because, as he says at points, he was writing for a local audience of Christians who knew him and his work. There are several mentions of travelling around the island and of sometimes difficult interactions with the ruling elite. He does claim of the Irish:
Never before did they know of God except to serve idols and unclean things. But now, they have become the people of the Lord, and are called children of God. The sons and daughters of the leaders of the Irish are seen to be monks and virgins of Christ![53]
Patrick's position as a foreigner in Ireland was not an easy one. His refusal to accept gifts from kings placed him outside the normal ties of kinship, fosterage and affinity. Legally he was without protection, and he says that he was on one occasion beaten, robbed of all he had, and put in chains, perhaps awaiting execution.[54] Patrick says that he was also "many years later" a captive for 60 days, without giving details.[55]
Murchiú's life of Saint Patrick contains a supposed prophecy by thedruids which gives an impression of how Patrick and other Christian missionaries were seen by those hostile to them:
Across the sea will comeAdze-head,[56] crazed in the head, his cloak with hole for the head, his stick bent in the head. He will chant impieties from a table in the front of his house; all his people will answer: "so be it, so be it."[57]
The second piece of evidence that comes from Patrick's life is theLetter to Coroticus orLetter to the Soldiers of Coroticus, written after a first remonstrance was received with ridicule and insult. In this, Patrick writes[58] anopen letter announcing that he hasexcommunicated Coroticus because he had taken some of Patrick's converts into slavery while raiding in Ireland. The letter describes the followers of Coroticus as "fellow citizens of the devils" and "associates of the Scots [ofDalriada and later Argyll] andapostatePicts".[59] Based largely on an eighth-centurygloss, Coroticus is taken to be KingCeretic of Alt Clut.[60] Thompson however proposed that based on the evidence it is more likely that Coroticus was a British Roman living in Ireland.[61] It has been suggested that it was the sending of this letter that provoked the trial which Patrick mentions in theConfession.[29]
Seventh-century writings
An early document which is silent concerning Patrick is the letter ofColumbanus toPope Boniface IV of about 613. Columbanus writes that Ireland's Christianity "was first handed to us by you, the successors of the holy apostles", apparently referring toPalladius only, and ignoring Patrick.[62] Writing on theEaster controversy in 632 or 633, Cummian—it is uncertain whether this isCumméne Fota, associated withClonfert, orCumméne Find—does refer to Patrick, calling him "our papa", that is, pope orprimate.[63]
Two works by late seventh-centuryhagiographers of Patrick have survived. These are the writings of Tírechán and theVita sancti Patricii of Muirchú moccu Machtheni.[64] Both writers relied upon an earlier work, now lost, theBook of Ultán.[65] This Ultán, probably the same person asUltan of Ardbraccan, was Tírechán's foster-father. His obituary is given in theAnnals of Ulster under the year 657.[66] These works thus date from a century and a half after Patrick's death.
The Patrick portrayed by Tírechán and Muirchu is a martial figure, who contests withdruids, overthrows pagan idols, and curses kings and kingdoms.[67] On occasion, their accounts contradict Patrick's own writings: Tírechán states that Patrick accepted gifts from female converts although Patrick himself flatly denies this. However, the emphasis Tírechán and Muirchu placed on female converts, and in particular royal and noble women who became nuns, is thought to be a genuine insight into Patrick's work of conversion. Patrick also worked with the unfree and the poor, encouraging them to vows of monastic chastity. Tírechán's account suggests that many early Patrician churches were combined with nunneries founded by Patrick's noble female converts.[68]
The martial Patrick found in Tírechán and Muirchu, and in later accounts, echoes similar figures found during the conversion of theRoman Empire to Christianity. It may be doubted whether such accounts are an accurate representation of Patrick's time, although such violent events may well have occurred as Christians gained in strength and numbers.[69]
Much of the detail supplied by Tírechán and Muirchu, in particular the churches established by Patrick, and the monasteries founded by his converts, may relate to the situation in the seventh century, when the churches which claimed ties to Patrick, and in particularArmagh, were expanding their influence throughout Ireland in competition with the church ofKildare. In the same period,Wilfred,Archbishop of York, claimed to speak, asmetropolitan archbishop, "for all the northern part of Britain and of Ireland" at a council held in Rome in the time ofPope Agatho, thus claiming jurisdiction over the Irish church.[70]
Other presumed early materials include theIrish annals, which contain records from theChronicle of Ireland. These sources haveconflatedPalladius and Patrick.[71] Another early document is the so-calledFirst Synod of Saint Patrick. This is a seventh-century document, once, but no longer, taken as to contain a fifth-century original text. It apparently collects the results of several early synods, and represents an era when pagans were still a major force in Ireland. The introduction attributes it to Patrick, Auxilius, and Iserninus, a claim which "cannot be taken at face value."[72]
Legends
Patrick uses shamrock in an illustrative parable
Patrick depicted with shamrock in detail of stained glass window in St. Benin's Church, Kilbennan, County Galway, Ireland
Legend credits Patrick with teaching the Irish about the doctrine of theHoly Trinity by showing people theshamrock, a three-leafed plant, using it to illustrate the Christian teaching of three persons in one God.[73] The earliest written version of the story is given by the botanistCaleb Threlkeld in his 1726Synopsis stirpium Hibernicarum, but the earliest surviving records associating Patrick with the plant are coins depicting Patrick clutching a shamrock which were minted in the 1680s.[74][75]
In pagan Ireland, three was a significant number and the Irish had manytriple deities, a fact that may have aided Patrick in hisevangelisation efforts when he "held up a shamrock and discoursed on the Christian Trinity".[76][77]Patricia Monaghan says there is no evidence that the shamrock was sacred to the pagan Irish.[76] However,Jack Santino speculates that it may have represented the regenerative powers of nature, and was recast in a Christian context.Icons of St Patrick often depict the saint "with across in one hand and a sprig of shamrocks in the other".[78] Roger Homan writes, "We can perhaps see St Patrick drawing upon the visual concept of thetriskele when he uses the shamrock to explain the Trinity".[79]
Patrick banishes snakes from Ireland
Patrick banishing the snakes
Ireland was well known to be a land without snakes, and this was noted as early as the third century byGaius Julius Solinus, but later legend credited Patrick with banishing snakes from the island. The earliest text to mention an Irish saint banishing snakes from Ireland is in fact the Life of SaintColumba (chapter 3.23), written in the late seventh or early eighth century.[80] The earliest writings about Patrick ridding Ireland of snakes are byJocelyn of Furness in the late twelfth century,[81] who says that Patrick chased them into the sea after they attacked him during his fast on a mountain.[82]Gerald of Wales also mentions the story in the early thirteenth century, but he is doubtful of its truthfulness.[83]Post-glacial Ireland never had snakes.[82] "At no time has there ever been any suggestion of snakes in Ireland, so [there was] nothing for St. Patrick to banish", says naturalist Nigel Monaghan, keeper of natural history at the National Museum of Ireland in Dublin, who has searched extensively through Irish fossil collections and records.[82]
Patrick's fast on the mountain
Tírechán wrote in the 7th century that Patrick spent forty days on the mountaintop ofCruachán Aigle, asMoses did onMount Sinai. The 9th centuryBethu Phátraic says that Patrick was harassed by a flock of black demonic birds while on the peak, and he banished them into the hollow of Lugnademon ("hollow of the demons") by ringing his bell. Patrick ended his fast when God gave him the right to judge all the Irish at theLast Judgement, and agreed to spare the land of Ireland from thefinal desolation.[84][31] A later legend tells how Patrick was tormented on the mountain by a demonic female serpent named Corra or Caorthannach. Patrick is said to have banished the serpent into Lough Na Corra below the mountain, or into a hollow from which the lake burst forth.[85] The mountain is now known asCroagh Patrick (Cruach Phádraig) after the saint.
Patrick and Dáire
According to tradition, Patrick founded his main church atArmagh (Ard Mhacha) in the year 445.Muirchú writes that a pagan chieftain namedDáire would not let Patrick build a church on the hill of Ard Mhacha, but instead gave him lower ground to the east. One day, Dáire's horses die after grazing on the church land. He tells his men to kill Patrick, but is himself struck down with illness. Dáire's men beg Patrick to heal him, and Patrick's holy water revives both Dáire and his horses. Dáire rewards Patrick with a great bronze cauldron and gave him the hill of Ard Mhacha to build a church, which eventually became the head church of Ireland. Dáire has similarities withthe Dagda, an Irish god who owns a cauldron of plenty.[86]
In a later legend, the pagan chieftain is namedCrom. Patrick asks the chieftain for food, and Crom sends his bull, in the hope that it will drive off or kill Patrick. Instead, it meekly submits to Patrick, allowing itself to be slaughtered and eaten. Crom demands his bull be returned. Patrick has the bull's bones and hide put together and brings it back to life. In some versions, Crom is so impressed that he converts to Christianity, while in others he is killed by the bull. In parts of Ireland,Lughnasa (1 August) is called 'Crom's Sunday' and the legend could recallbull sacrifices during the festival.[87]
Patrick speaks with ancient Irish ancestors
The twelfth-century workAcallam na Senórach tells of Patrick being met by two ancient warriors,Caílte mac Rónáin andOisín, during his evangelical travels. The two were once members ofFionn mac Cumhaill's warrior band theFianna, and somehow survived to Patrick's time.[88] In the work St. Patrick seeks to convert the warriors to Christianity, while they defend their pagan past. The heroic pagan lifestyle of the warriors, of fighting and feasting and living close to nature, is contrasted with the more peaceful, but unheroic and non-sensual life offered by Christianity.[89]
Patrick and the innkeeper
A much later legend tells of Patrick visiting aninn and chiding the innkeeper for being ungenerous with her guests. Patrick tells her that a demon is hiding in her cellar and being fattened by her dishonesty. He says that the only way to get rid of the demon is by mending her ways. Sometime later, Patrick revisits the inn to find that the innkeeper is now serving her guests cups of whiskey filled to the brim. He praises her generosity and brings her to the cellar, where they find the demon withering away. It then flees in a flash of flame, and Patrick decrees that people should have a drink of whiskey on his feast day in memory of this. This is said to be the origin of "drowning the shamrock" on Saint Patrick's Day.[90]
Battle for the body of St Patrick
According to theAnnals of the Four Masters, an early-modern compilation of earlier annals, his corpse soon became an object of conflict in the Battle for the Body of Saint Patrick (Cath Coirp Naomh Padraic):
TheUí Néill and theAirgíalla attempted to bring it to Armagh; theUlaid tried to keep it for themselves.
When the Uí Néill and the Airgíalla came to a certain water, the river swelled against them so that they were not able to cross it. When the flood had subsided the Ui Neill and the Ulaid united on terms of peace, to bring the body of Patrick with them. It appeared to each of them that each had the body conveying it to their respective territories. The body of Patrick was afterwards interred atDun Da Lethglas with great honour and veneration; and during the twelve nights that the religious seniors were watching the body with psalms and hymns, it was not night in Magh Inis or the neighbouring lands, as they thought, but as if it were the full undarkened light of day.[91]
Modern theories
"Two Patricks" theory
Saint Patrick sent to Ireland by the Pope; wall mosaic inSt Mary's Cathedral, Kilkenny. Emphasising the supposed papal mission of Patrick would help lend credence to the Catholic teaching that the Irish church was always under Papal authority.
Irish academicT. F. O'Rahilly proposed the "Two Patricks" theory,[92] which suggests that many of the traditions later attached to Saint Patrick actually concerned the aforementionedPalladius, who, according toProsper of Aquitaine'sChronicle, was sent byPope Celestine I as the first bishop to Irish Christians in 431. Palladius was not the only early cleric in Ireland at this time. The Irish-born SaintCiarán of Saigir lived in the later fourth century (352–402) and was the first bishop ofOssory. Ciaran, along with saintsAuxilius,Secundinus andIserninus, is also associated with early churches inMunster andLeinster. By this reading,Palladius was active in Ireland until the 460s.[93]
Prosper associates Palladius' appointment with the visits ofGermanus of Auxerre to Britain to suppressPelagianism and it has been suggested that Palladius and his colleagues were sent to Ireland to ensure that exiled Pelagians did not establish themselves among the Irish Christians. The appointment of Palladius and his fellow bishops was not obviously a mission to convert the Irish, but more probably intended to minister to existing Christian communities in Ireland.[94] The sites of churches associated with Palladius and his colleagues are close to royal centres of the period: Secundus is remembered byDunshaughlin,County Meath, close to theHill of Tara which is associated with theHigh King of Ireland;Killashee, County Kildare, close toNaas with links with thekings of Leinster, is probably named for Auxilius. This activity was limited to the southern half of Ireland, and there is no evidence for them inUlster orConnacht.[95]
Although the evidence for contacts withGaul is clear, the borrowings fromLatin intoOld Irish show that links withRoman Britain were many.[96] Iserninus, who appears to be of the generation of Palladius, is thought to have been aBriton, and is associated with the lands of theUí Ceinnselaig in Leinster. The Palladian mission should not be contrasted with later "British" missions, but forms a part of them;[97] nor can the work of Palladius be uncritically equated with that of Saint Patrick, as was once traditional.[92]
Abduction reinterpreted
According to Patrick's own account, it was Irish raiders who brought him to Ireland where he was enslaved and held captive for six years.[98] However, a recent alternative interpretation by Roy Flechner of Patrick's departure to Ireland suggests that, as the son of adecurion, he would have been obliged by Roman law to serve on the town council (curia), but chose instead to abscond from the onerous obligations of this office by fleeing abroad, as many others in his position had done in what has become known as the 'flight of thecuriales'.[99] Flechner also asserts the improbability of an escape from servitude and a journey of the kind that Patrick purports to have undertaken. He also interprets the biblical allusions in Patrick's account (e.g. the theme of freedom after six years of servitude in Exod. 21:2 or Jer. 34:14), as implying parts of the account may not have been intended to be understood literally.[100]
17 March, popularly known asSaint Patrick's Day, is believed to be his death date and is the date celebrated as hisFeast Day.[101] The day became a feast day in the Catholic Church due to the influence of theWaterford-bornFranciscan scholarLuke Wadding, as a member of the commission for the reform of theBreviary in the early part of the 17th century.[102]
For most of Christianity's first thousand years, canonisations were done on the diocesan or regional level. Relatively soon after the death of people considered very holy, the local Church affirmed that they could be liturgically celebrated as saints. As a result, Patrick has never been formallycanonised by a pope (common before10th century); nevertheless, various Christian churches declare that he is a saint in Heaven (seeList of Saints). He is still widely venerated in Ireland and elsewhere today.[103]
Patrick is said to be buried atDown Cathedral inDownpatrick, County Down, alongsideSaint Brigid andSaint Columba, although this has never been proven.Saint Patrick Visitor Centre is a modern exhibition complex located in Downpatrick and is a permanent interpretative exhibition centre featuring interactive displays on the life and story of Patrick. It provides the only permanent exhibition centre in the world devoted to Patrick.[107]
There are two main types of crosses associated with Patrick, thecross pattée and theSaltire. The cross pattée is the more traditional association, while the association with the saltire dates from 1783 and the Order of St. Patrick.
The cross pattée has long been associated with Patrick, for reasons that are uncertain. One possible reason is that bishops' mitres inEcclesiastical heraldry often appear surmounted by a cross pattée.[111][112] An example of this can be seen on the old crest of theBrothers of St. Patrick.[113] As Patrick was the founding bishop of the Irish church, the symbol may have become associated with him. Patrick is traditionally portrayed in the vestments of a bishop, and his mitre and garments are often decorated with a cross pattée.[114][115][116][117][118]
Traditional Saint Patrick's Day badges from the early twentieth century, from theMuseum of Country Life, Castlebar
It was formerly a common custom to wear a cross made of paper or ribbon onSt Patrick's Day. Surviving examples of such badges come in many colours[121] and they were worn upright rather than as saltires.[122]
Thomas Dinely, an English traveller in Ireland in 1681, remarked that "the Irish of all stations and condicõns were crosses in their hatts, some of pins, some of green ribbon."[123]Jonathan Swift, writing to "Stella" of Saint Patrick's Day 1713, said "the Mall was so full of crosses that I thought all the world was Irish".[124] In the 1740s, the badges pinned were multicoloured interlaced fabric.[125] In the 1820s, they were only worn by children, with simple multicoloured daisy patterns.[125][126] In the 1890s, they were almost extinct, and a simple greenGreek cross inscribed in a circle of paper (similar to the Ballina crest pictured).[127]The Irish Times in 1935 reported they were still sold in poorer parts of Dublin, but fewer than those of previous years "some in velvet or embroidered silk or poplin, with the gold paper cross entwined with shamrocks and ribbons".[128]
Saint Patrick's Bell
The Shrine of Saint Patrick's Bell
TheNational Museum of Ireland in Dublin possesses a bell (Clog Phádraig)[129][131] first mentioned, according to theAnnals of Ulster, in theBook of Cuanu in the year 552. The bell was part of a collection of "relics of Patrick" removed from his tomb sixty years after his death byColum Cille to be used as relics. The bell is described as "The Bell of the Testament", one of three relics of "precious minna" (extremely valuable items), of which the other two are described as Patrick's goblet and "The Angels Gospel". Colum Cille is described to have been under the direction of an "Angel" for whom he sent the goblet toDown, the bell toArmagh, and kept possession of the Angel's Gospel for himself. The name Angels Gospel is given to the book because it was supposed that Colum Cille received it from the angel's hand. A stir was caused in 1044 when two kings, in some dispute over the bell, went on spates of prisoner taking and cattle theft. The annals make one more apparent reference to the bell when chronicling a death, of 1356: "Solomon Ua Mellain, The Keeper of The Bell of the Testament, protector, rested in Christ."
The bell was encased in a "bell shrine", a distinctive Irish type ofreliquary made for it, as an inscription records, by KingDomnall Ua Lochlainn sometime between 1091 and 1105. The shrine is an important example of the final, Viking-influenced, style of IrishCeltic art, with intricateUrnes style decoration in gold and silver. The Gaelic inscription on the shrine also records the name of the maker "U INMAINEN" (which translates to "Noonan"), "who with his sons enriched/decorated it"; metalwork was often inscribed for remembrance.
The bell itself is simple in design, hammered into shape with a small handle fixed to the top with rivets. Originally forged from iron, it has since been coated in bronze. The shrine is inscribed with three names, including King Domnall Ua Lochlainn's. The rear of the shrine, not intended to be seen, is decorated with crosses while the handle is decorated with, among other works, Celtic designs of birds. The bell is accredited with working a miracle in 1044,[further explanation needed] and having been coated in bronze to shield it from human eyes, for which it would be too holy. It measures 12.5 × 10 cm at the base, 12.8 × 4 cm at the shoulder, 16.5 cm from base to shoulder, 3.3 cm from shoulder to top of the handle and weighs 1.7 kg.[132]
Saint Patrick and Irish identity
A 1909 St Patrick's Day postcard with the Irish slogan "Erin go bragh" (Ireland Forever)
Patrick features in many stories in the Irish oral tradition and there are many customs connected with his feast day. The folklorist Jenny Butler discusses how these traditions have been given new layers of meaning over time while also becoming tied to Irish identity both in Ireland and abroad. The symbolic resonance of the Saint Patrick figure is complex and multifaceted, stretching from that of Christianity's arrival in Ireland to an identity that encompasses everything Irish. In some portrayals, the saint is symbolically synonymous with the Christian religion itself. There is also evidence of a combination of indigenous religious traditions with that of Christianity, which places St Patrick in the wider framework ofcultural hybridity. Popular religious expression has this characteristic feature of merging elements of culture. Later in time, the saint became associated specifically with Catholic Ireland and synonymously with Irish national identity. Subsequently, Saint Patrick is a patriotic symbol along with the colour green and the shamrock. Saint Patrick's Day celebrations include many traditions that are known to be relatively recent historically but have endured through time because of their association either with religious or national identity. They have persisted in such a way that they have become stalwart traditions, viewed as the strongest "Irish traditions".[133]
Places associated with Saint Patrick
Slemish, County Antrim, traditionally associated with Saint Patrick's time as a shepherd slaveSaint Patrick's statue at Saul, County DownSaint Patrick's Oratory at the top ofCroagh Patrick, County Mayo
Slemish, County Antrim andKillala Bay, County Mayo: When captured by raiders, there are two theories as to where Patrick was enslaved. One theory is that he herded sheep in the countryside around Slemish. Another theory is that Patrick herded sheep near Killala Bay, at a place called Fochill.
Saul Monastery (fromIrishSabhall Phádraig, meaning 'Patrick's barn'):[134] It is claimed that Patrick founded his first church in a barn at Saul, which was donated to him by a local chieftain calledDichu. It is also claimed that Patrick died at Saul or was brought there between his death and burial. Nearby, on the crest of Slieve Patrick, is a huge statue of Patrick with bronze panels showing scenes from his life.
Hill of Slane, [County Meath:Muirchu moccu Machtheni, in his highly mythologised seventh-centuryLife of Patrick, says that Patrick lit aPaschal fire on this hilltop in 433 in defiance ofHigh KingLaoire. The story says that the fire could not be doused by anyone but Patrick, and it was here that he explained the Holy Trinity using the shamrock.
Croagh Patrick, County Mayo (fromIrishCruach Phádraig, meaning 'Patrick's stack'):[135] It is claimed that Patrick climbed this mountain and fasted on its summit for the forty days ofLent. Croagh Patrick draws thousands of pilgrims who make the trek to the top on the last Sunday in July.
Lough Derg, County Donegal (fromIrishLoch Dearg, meaning 'red lake'):[136] It is claimed that Patrick killed a large serpent on this lake and that its blood turned the water red (hence the name). Each August, pilgrims spend three days fasting and praying there on Station Island. Located on the island isSt Patrick's Purgatory which has been considered as the entrance to Purgatory since the Middle Ages.[137]
Armagh: It is claimed that Patrick founded a church here and proclaimed it to be the most holy church in Ireland. Armagh is today the primary seat of both the Catholic Church in Ireland and the Church of Ireland, and both cathedrals in the town are named after Patrick.
Downpatrick, County Down (fromIrishDún Pádraig, meaning 'Patrick's stronghold'):[138][failed verification] It is claimed that Patrick was brought here after his death and buried in the grounds of Down Cathedral.
Glastonbury Abbey, England: It is claimed that he was buried within the Abbey grounds next to the high altar, which has led to many believing this is why Glastonbury was popular among Irish pilgrims. It is also believed that he was 'the founder and the first Abbot of Glastonbury Abbey.'[139] This was recorded byWilliam of Malmesbury in his document "De antiquitate Glastoniensis ecclesiae (Concerning the Antiquity of Glastonbury)" that was compiled between 1129 and 1135, where it was noted that "After converting the Irish and establishing them solidly in the Catholic faith he returned to his native land, and was led by guidance from on high to Glastonbury. There he came upon certain holy men living the life of hermits. Finding themselves all of one mind with Patrick they decided to form a community and elected him as their superior. Later, two of their members resided on the Tor to serve its Chapel."[140] Within the grounds of the Abbey liesSt. Patrick's Chapel, Glastonbury which is a site of pilgrimage. The well-known Irish ScholarJames Carney also elaborated on this claim and wrote "it is possible that Patrick, tired and ill at the end of his arduous mission felt released from his vow not to leave Ireland, and returned to the monastery from which he had come, which might have been Glastonbury".[141] It is also another possible burial site of the saint, where it is documented he has been "interred in the Old Wattle Church".[139]
Stone found below St. Patrick's Well. St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, Ireland.
Other places named after Saint Patrick include:
Patrickswell Lane, a well inDrogheda Town where St. Patrick opened a monastery and baptised the townspeople.
St Patrick's Hill, Liverpool, on old maps of the town near to the former location of "St Patrick's Cross"[154]
Parroquia San Patricio y Espiritu Santo, Loiza, Puerto Rico. The site was initially mentioned in 1645 as a chapel. The actual building was completed by 1729, is one of the oldest churches in the Americas and today represents the faith of many Irish immigrants that settled in Loiza by the end of the 18th century. Today it is a museum.
Stephen R. Lawhead wrote the fictionalPatrick: Son of Ireland loosely based on the saint's life, including imagined accounts of training as a druid and service in the Roman army before his conversion.[156]
I am Patrick: The Patron Saint of Ireland is a 2020 film based on Patrick's own writings and the earliest traditions. Patrick is portrayed by Seán Ó Meallaigh, with Robert McCormack playing him when he is younger andJohn Rhys-Davies in later life.
^Ritschel, Chelsea; Michallon, Clémence (17 March 2022)."What is the meaning behind St Patrick's Day?".The Independent. Retrieved17 March 2022.The day of celebration, which marks the day of St Patrick's death, is a religious holiday meant to celebrate the arrival of Christianity in Ireland, and made official by the Catholic Church in the early 17th century. Observed by the Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Lutheran Church, the day was typically observed with services, feasts and alcohol.
^Both texts in original Latin, various translations and with images of all extant manuscript testimonies on the"Saint Patrick's Confessio HyperStack website". Royal Irish Academy Dictionary of Medieval Latin from Celtic Sources.Archived from the original on 23 September 2020. Retrieved14 September 2011.
^Macthéni, Muirchú maccu; White, Newport John Davis (1920).St. Patrick, his writings and life. New York: The Macmillan Company. pp. 31–51,54–60.Archived from the original on 30 May 2013. Retrieved17 March 2013.
^"Saints' Lives".Internet Medieval Sources. Fordham University.Archived from the original on 7 July 2017. Retrieved4 July 2017.[page needed]
^MacNeill, Eoin (1926)."The Native Place of St. Patrick".Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Dublin: Hodges, Figgis:118–40. Retrieved17 March 2013. noting that the western coasts of southern Scotland and northern England held little to interest a raider seeking quick access to booty and numerous slaves, while the southern coast of Wales offered both. In addition, the region was home toUí Liatháin and possibly also yDéisi settlers during this time, so Irish raiders would have had the contacts to tell them precisely where to go to quickly obtain booty and capture slaves. MacNeill also suggests a possible home town in Wales based on naming similarities but allows that the transcription errors in manuscripts make this little more than an educated guess.
^abcd"Confession of St Patrick".Christian Classics Ethereal Library. 7 April 2013.Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved8 February 2014.
^Bridgwater, William; Kurtz, Seymour, eds. (1963). "Saint Patrick".The Columbia Encyclopedia (3rd ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 1611–12.
^ab This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Moran, Patrick Francis (1913). "St. Patrick". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^Paor 1993, p. 100 Paor glosses Foclut as "west ofKillala Bay, inCounty Mayo", but it appears that the location of Fochoill (Foclut or Voclut) is still a matter of debate. SeeCharles-Edwards 2000, p. 215; Confessio; 17
^Todd, James (1864)."The Epistle on Coroticus".St. Patrick: Apostle of Ireland: a Memoir of His Life and Mission, with an Introductory Dissertation on Some Early Usages of the Church in Ireland, and Its Historical Position from the Establishment of the English Colony to the Present Day. Dublin: Hodges, Smith, & Co. pp. 383–85.Archived from the original on 1 May 2016. Retrieved17 October 2015.
^Both texts in original Latin and English translations and images of the Book of Armagh manuscript copy on the"Saint Patrick's Confessio HyperStack website".Archived from the original on 23 September 2020. Retrieved14 September 2011.
^Aideen O'Leary, "An Irish Apocryphal Apostle: Muirchú's Portrayal of Saint Patrick"The Harvard Theological Review89.3 (July 1996), pp. 287–301, traces Muichù's sources and his explicit parallels of Patrick withMoses, the bringer ofrechte Litre, the "letter of the Law"; the adversary, KingLóegaire, takes the role of Pharaoh.
^Annals of Ulster, AU 657.1: "Obitus... Ultán moccu Conchobair."
^Their works are found in Paor, pp. 154–74 & 175–97 respectively.
^Ó Cróinín 1995, pp. 30–33.Ramsay MacMullen'sChristianizing the Roman Empire (Yale University Press, 1984) examines the better-recorded mechanics of conversion in the Empire, and forms the basis of Ó Cróinín's conclusions.
^Threlkeld, CalebSynopsis stirpium Hibernicarum alphabetice dispositarum, sive, Commentatio de plantis indigenis præsertim Dublinensibus instituta. With An appendix of observations made upon plants, by Dr. Molyneux, 1726, cited in "shamrock, n.",The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed. 1989
^abMonaghan, Patricia (2009).The Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology and Folklore. Infobase Publishing.ISBN978-1438110370.
^Hegarty, Neil (2012).Story of Ireland. Ebury Publishing.ISBN978-1448140398.
^Robinson, William Erigena. New Haven Hibernian Provident Society.St. Patrick and the Irish: an oration, before the Hibernian Provident Society, of New Haven, 17 March 1842.p. 8.Archived 11 June 2020 at theWayback Machine
^Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí (1991).Myth, Legend & Romance: An encyclopaedia of the Irish folk tradition. Prentice Hall Press. p. 358.
^Corlett, Christiaan. "The Prehistoric Ritual Landscape of Croagh Patrick, Co Mayo".The Journal of Irish Archaeology, Vol. 9. Wordwell, 1998. p. 19
^Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí.Myth, Legend & Romance: An encyclopaedia of the Irish folk tradition. Prentice Hall Press, 1991. pp. 357–58
^Franklin, Anna; Mason, Paul (2001).Lammas: Celebrating Fruits of the First Harvest. Llewellyn Publications. p. 26.
^Nagy, Joseph Falaky (2006). "Acallam na Senórach". In Koch, John T. (ed.).Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. Oxford: ABC-CLIO. p. 8.ISBN978-1-85109-440-0.
^MacKillop, James (1998). "Acallam na Senórach".Dictionary of Celtic Mythology. Oxford.ISBN0-19-860967-1.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Ó hÓgáin, Dáithí.Myth, Legend & Romance: An encyclopaedia of the Irish folk tradition. Prentice Hall Press, 1991. pp. 360–61
^O Suilleabhain, Sean (1952).Miraculous Plenty: Irish Religious Folktales and Legends. University College Dublin.ISBN978-0-9565628-2-1.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Morley, Vincent (27 September 2007)."St. Patrick's Cross".Archived from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved29 June 2009.
^Colgan, Nathaniel (1896). "The Shamrock in Literature: a critical chronology".Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland.26.Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland: 349.
^The bell was formerly known as "The Bell ofSt Patrick's Will" (Clog an eadhachta Phatraic),[130] in reference to a medieval forgery which purported to have been the saint'slast will and testament.
^Butler, Jenny (2012), "St. Patrick, Folklore and Irish National Identity" 84–101 in Heimo, Anne; Hovi, Tuomas; Vasenkari, Maria, ed. Saint Urho – Pyhä Urho – From Fakelore To Folklore, University of Turku: Finland.ISBN978-951-29-4897-0
^"Old Patrick Water, linear feature".Saints in Scottish Place-names. Commemorations of Saints in Scottish Place-names.Archived from the original on 21 September 2015. Retrieved15 June 2015.
^Theatrum Orbis Terrarum Sive Atlas Novus Volume V, Joan Blaeu, Amsterdam 1654
Dumville, David M. (1993).Saint Patrick, AD 493–1993. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press.ISBN978-0-85115-332-2.
Flechner, Roy (2011). "Patrick's Reasons for Leaving Britain". In Russell, Edmonds (ed.).Tome: Studies in Medieval Celtic History and Law in Honour of Thomas Charles-Edwards. Woodbridge: Boydell Press.ISBN978-1-84383-661-2.
O'Rahilly, T. F. (1942).The Two Patricks: A Lecture on the History of Christianity in Fifth-Century Ireland. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.
Thompson, E.A. (1980). Caird, G.B.; Chadwick, Henry (eds.). "St. Patrick and Coroticus".The Journal of Theological Studies.31:12–27.doi:10.1093/jts/XXXI.1.12.ISSN0022-5185.
Dumville, David (1994). "The Death Date of St. Patrick". In Howlett, David (ed.).The Book of Letters of Saint Patrick the Bishop. Dublin: Four Courts Press.ISBN978-1-85182-136-5.
Iannello, Fausto (2008). "Note storiche sull'Epistola ad Milites Corotici di San Patrizio".Atti della Accademia Peloritana dei Pericolanti, Classe di Lettere, Filosofia e Belle Arti.84:275–85.
Iannello, Fausto (2012), "Il modello paolino nell’Epistola ad milites Corotici di san Patrizio,Bollettino di Studi Latini 42/1: 43–63
Iannello, Fausto (2013), "Notes and Considerations on the Importance of St. Patrick's Epistola ad Milites Corotici as a Source on the Origins of Celtic Christianity and Sub-Roman Britain".Imago Temporis. Medium Aevum 7 2013: 97–137
Moran, Patrick Francis Cardinal (1913)."St. Patrick" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
MacQuarrie, Alan (1997).The Saints of Scotland: Essays in Scottish Church History AD 450–1093. Edinburgh: John Donald.ISBN978-0-85976-446-9.
O'Loughlin, Thomas (1999).Saint Patrick: The Man and his Works. London: S.P.C.K.
O'Loughlin, Thomas (2000).Celtic Theology. London: Continuum.
O'Loughlin, Thomas (2005).Discovering Saint Patrick. New York: Orbis.
O'Loughlin, Thomas (2005). "The Capitula of Muirchu's Vita Patricii: do they point to an underlying structure in the text?".Analecta Bollandiana.123:79–89.doi:10.1484/J.ABOL.4.00190.
O'Loughlin, Thomas (2007). Nagy, J. F. (ed.).The Myth of Insularity and Nationality in Ireland. Dublin: Four Courts Press. pp. 132–40.
Saint Patrick's Confessio Hypertext Stack as published by the Royal Irish Academy Dictionary of Medieval Latin from Celtic Sources (DMLCS) freely providing digital scholarly editions of Saint Patrick's writings as well as translations and digital facsimiles of all extant manuscript copies.
History Hub.ie: Saint Patrick – Historical Man and Popular Myth by Elva Johnston (University College Dublin)
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