The English historianEdward Gibbon (1737 – 1794)[7][8] argued that George, or at least the legend from which the above is distilled, is based onGeorge of Cappadocia,[9][10] a notorious 4th-century Arian bishop who wasAthanasius of Alexandria's most bitter rival, and that it was he who in time became George of England. This identification is seen as highly improbable. Bishop George was slain by Gentile Greeks for exacting onerous taxes, especially inheritance taxes.J. B. Bury, who edited the 1906 edition of Gibbon'sThe Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, wrote "this theory of Gibbon's has nothing to be said for it". He adds that "the connection of St. George with a dragon-slaying legend does not relegate him to the region of the myth".[11] Saint George in all likelihood was martyred before the year 290.[12]
Little is known about George's life.[2] According to Christian tradition, his father was Saint Gerontios from Cappadocia and his mother Saint Polychronia was from Lydda ofPalestine.[13]
Before theAswan Dam was flooded, excavations were carried out inQasr Ibrim inNubia. In 1964, a Coptic manuscript was discovered under a column in the ruins of the cathedral of Qasr Ibrim. This manuscript is dated between 350 and 500 and represents the oldest tradition of the legend of St George. According to this text, St George's father Gerontius was from Cappadocia and was in the service of theRoman Empire inNobatia. His wife Polychronia was a Christian. George is said to have been born during the reign ofAurelian, i.e. between 270 and 275. Polychronia raised George as a Christian and had him baptised in secret, as Gerontius disapproved of this as he was apagan.[14]
It is thought that he was, like his father, a Roman military officer, who was martyred underRoman emperorDiocletian in one of thepre-Constantinian persecutions of the 3rd or early 4th century.[15][16] Beyond this, early sources give conflicting information.
Herbert Thurston inThe Catholic Encyclopedia states that, based upon an ancientcultus, narratives of the early pilgrims, and the early dedications of churches to George, going back to the fourth century, "there seems, therefore, no ground for doubting the historical existence of St. George", although no faith can be placed in either the details of his history or his alleged exploits.[11]
No historical particulars of his life have survived, ... The widespread veneration for St George as a soldier saint from early times had its centre inPalestine at Diospolis, nowLydda. St George was apparently martyred there, at the end of the third or the beginning of the fourth century; that is all that can be reasonably surmised about him.[17]
The saint's veneration dates to the 5th century with some certainty, and possibly even to the 4th, while the collection of his intercessorymiracles gradually began during themedieval times.[18] The story of thedefeat of the dragon is not part of Saint George's earliest hagiographies, and seems to have been a later addition.[15][18]
The earliest text which preserves fragments of George's narrative is in a Greek hagiography which is identified byHippolyte Delehaye of the scholarlyBollandists to be apalimpsest of the 5th century.[19] An earlier work byEusebius,Church History, written in the 4th century, contributed to the legend but did not name George or provide significant detail.[20] The work of the BollandistsDaniel Papebroch,Jean Bolland, andGodfrey Henschen in the 17th century was one of the first pieces of scholarly research to establish the saint's historicity, via their publications inBibliotheca Hagiographica Graeca.[21]Pope Gelasius I stated in 494 that George was among those saints "whose names are justly reverenced among men, but whose actions are known only to God".[22]
The most complete version, based upon the 5th-century Greek text but in a later form, survives in a translation intoSyriac from around 600. Text fragments preserved in theBritish Library enabled an English translation in 1925.[23][24][25]
In the Greek tradition, George was born to noble Christian parents, inCappadocia,Greater Syria. After his father died, his mother, who was fromLydda, inPalestine,Greater Syria, returned with George to her hometown.[26] He went on to become a soldier in theRoman army; but, because of his Christian faith, he was arrested and tortured, "at or nearLydda, also called Diospolis"; on the following day, he was paraded and thenbeheaded, and his body was buried in Lydda.[26] According to other sources, after his mother's death, George travelled to the eastern imperial capital,Nicomedia,[27] where he was persecuted by oneDadianus. In later versions of the Greek legend, this name is rationalised toDiocletian, and George's martyrdom is placed in theDiocletian persecution of AD 303. The setting in Nicomedia is also secondary, and inconsistent with the earliest cults of the saint being located inDiospolis.[10]
George was executed by decapitation on 23 April 303. A witness of his suffering convinced EmpressAlexandra of Rome to become a Christian as well, so she joined George in martyrdom. His body was buried inDiospolis, Palestine where Christians soon came to honour him as a martyr.[28][29]
George in theActa Sanctorum, as collected in late 1600s and early 1700s. The Latin titleDe S Georgio Megalo-Martyre; Lyddae seu Diospoli in Palaestina translates asSt. George Great-Martyr; [from]Lydda or Diospolis, in Palestine
The LatinPassio Sancti Georgii (6th century) follows the general course of the Greek legend, but Diocletian here becomesDacian, Emperor of the Persians. His martyrdom was greatly extended to more than twenty separate tortures over the course of seven years. Over the course of his martyrdom, 40,900 pagans were converted to Christianity, including the Empress Alexandra. When George finally died, the wicked Dacian was carried away in a whirlwind of fire. In later Latin versions, the persecutor is the Roman emperorDecius, or a Roman judge namedDacian serving under Diocletian.[30]
The tradition tells that a fierce dragon was causing panic at the city of Silene,Libya, at the time George arrived there. To prevent the dragon from devastating people from the city, they gave two sheep each day to the dragon, but when the sheep were not enough they were forced to sacrifice humans, elected by the city's own people. Eventually, the king's daughter was chosen to be sacrificed, and no one was willing to take her place. George saved the girl by slaying the dragon with a lance. The king was so grateful that he offered him treasures as a reward for saving his daughter's life, but George refused it and insisted he give them to the poor. The people of the city were so amazed at what they had witnessed that they all became Christians and were baptised.[33]
Miniature from a 13th-centuryPassio Sancti Georgii (Verona)
Saint George's encounter with a dragon, as narrated in theGolden Legend, would go on to become very influential, as it remains the most familiar version in English owing toWilliam Caxton's 15th-century translation.[34]
In the medieval romances, the lance with which George slew the dragon was named Ascalon, after theLevantine city of Asqalan/Ascalon in southernPalestine,Greater Syria. The nameAscalon was used byWinston Churchill for his personal aircraft duringWorld War II, according to records atBletchley Park.[35] Iconography of the horseman with spear overcoming evil was widespread throughout the Christian period.[36]
Al-Khadr,the Verdant One, standing on a large fish swimming on the surface of water. The islamic mid-17th century Mughal painting has a frame with floral andfoliated scrolling patterns and has a ground decorated withflowers, with pinklilies and redpoppies
George (Arabic:جرجس,Jirjis orGirgus) is included in some Muslim texts as a prophetic figure.[37] The Islamic sources state that he lived among a group of believers who were in direct contact with the lastapostles of Jesus. He is described as a rich merchant who opposed the erection ofApollo's statue by Dadan, the king ofMosul. After confronting the king, George was tortured many times to no effect, was imprisoned and was aided by angels. Eventually, he exposed that the idols were possessed by Satan, but was martyred when the city was destroyed by God in a rain of fire.[37]
Muslim scholars have tried to find a historical connection of the saint due to his popularity.[38] According to Muslim legend, he was martyred under the rule ofDiocletian and was killed three times but wasresurrected every time. The legend is more developed in the Persian version ofal-Tabari wherein he resurrects the dead, makes trees sprout and pillars bear flowers. After one of his deaths, the world is covered by darkness which is lifted only when he is resurrected. He is able to convert the queen but she is put to death. He then prays to God to allow him to die, which is granted.[39]
Al-Thaʿlabi states that George was fromPalestine and lived in the times of somedisciples of Jesus. He was killed many times by the king of Mosul, and resurrected each time. When the king tried to starve him, he touched a piece of dry wood brought by a woman and turned it green, with varieties of fruits and vegetables growing from it. After his fourth death, the city was burnt along with him.Ibn al-Athir's account of one of his deaths is parallel to thecrucifixion of Jesus, stating, "When he died, God sent stormy winds and thunder and lightning and dark clouds, so that darkness fell between heaven and earth, and people were in great wonderment." The account adds that the darkness was lifted after his resurrection.[38]
The early cult of the saint was localised inDiospolis (Greek: City of God), inSyria Palaestina. The first description of Diospolis as a pilgrimage site where George's relics were venerated isDe Situ Terrae Sanctae by the archdeacon Theodosius, written between 518 and 530. By the end of the 6th century, the center of his veneration appears to have shifted toCappadocia. TheLife ofSaint Theodore of Sykeon, written in the 7th century, mentions the veneration of the relics of the saint in Cappadocia.[42]
Diospolis with ruined church over the tomb of Saint George and adjacent Mosque ofAl-Khadr,Konrad von Grünenberg, 1487
By the time of theearly Muslim conquests of the mostly Christian andZoroastrian Middle East, abasilica in Lydda dedicated to George existed.[43] A new church was erected in 1872 and is still standing, where the feast of the translation of the relics of Saint George to that location is celebrated on 3 November each year.[44] In England, he was mentioned among the martyrs by the 8th-century monkBede. TheGeorgslied is an adaptation of his legend inOld High German, composed in the late 9th century. The earliest dedication to the saint in England is a church atFordington, Dorset, that is mentioned in the will ofAlfred the Great.[45] George did not rise to the position of "patron saint" of England, however, until the 14th century, and he was still obscured byEdward the Confessor, the traditional patron saint of England, until in 1552 during the reign ofEdward VI all saints' banners other than George's were abolished in theEnglish Reformation.[46][47]
Edward III of England put hisOrder of the Garter under the banner of George, probably in 1348. The chroniclerJean Froissart observed the English invoking George as a battle cry on several occasions during theHundred Years' War. In his rise as a national saint, George was aided by the very fact that the saint had no legendary connection with England, and no specifically localised shrine, as that ofThomas Becket at Canterbury: "Consequently, numerous shrines were established during the late fifteenth century," Muriel C. McClendon has written,[50] "and his did not become closely identified with a particular occupation or with the cure of a specific malady."
In the wake of the Crusades, George became a model ofchivalry in works of literature, includingmedieval romances. In the 13th century,Jacobus de Voragine, Archbishop of Genoa, compiled theLegenda Sanctorum, (Readings of the Saints) also known asLegenda Aurea (theGolden Legend). Its 177 chapters (182 in some editions) include the story of George, among many others. After the invention of the printing press, the book became a best seller.
The establishment of George as a popular saint and protective giant[51] in the West, that had captured the medieval imagination, was codified by the official elevation of his feast to afestum duplex[52] at a church council in 1415, on the date that had become associated with his martyrdom, 23 April. There was wide latitude from community to community in celebration of the day across late medieval and early modern England,[53] and no uniform "national" celebration elsewhere, a token of the popular and vernacular nature of George'scultus and its local horizons, supported by a local guild or confraternity under George's protection, or the dedication of a local church. When theEnglish Reformation severely curtailed the saints' days in the calendar, Saint George's Day was among the holidays that continued to be observed.
In April 2019, the parish church of São Jorge, inSão Jorge,Madeira Island, Portugal, solemnly received therelics of George, patron saint of the parish. During the celebrations the 504th anniversary of its foundation, the relics were brought by the new Bishop of Funchal, D.Nuno Brás.[54]
Saint George dragged through the streets (detail), byBernat Martorell, 15th century
William Dalrymple, who reviewed the literature in 1999, tells us thatJ. E. Hanauer in his 1907 bookFolklore of the Holy Land: Muslim, Christian and Jewish "mentioned a shrine in the village ofBeit Jala, besideBethlehem,Palestine which at the time was frequented byChristians who regarded it as the birthplace of St. George.
According to Hanauer, in his day the monastery was "a sort of madhouse. Deranged persons of all the three faiths are taken thither and chained in the court of the chapel, where they are kept for forty days on bread and water, the Eastern Orthodox priest at the head of the establishment now and then reading the Gospel over them, or administering a whipping as the case demands."[59] In the 1920s, according toTawfiq Canaan'sMohammedan Saints and Sanctuaries in Palestine, nothing seemed to have changed, and all three communities were still visiting the shrine and praying together."[60]
Dalrymple visited the place in 1995. "I asked around in theChristian Quarter inJerusalem, and discovered that the place was very much alive. With all the greatest shrines in the Christian world to choose from, it seemed that when the localPalestinian Christians had a problem – an illness, or something more complicated – they preferred to seek the intercession of George in his grubby little shrine at Beit Jala rather than praying at theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem or theChurch of the Nativity inBethlehem."[60] Dalrymple's visit to the shrine of Beit Jala there in the same orthodox church Christians venerate Saint George and MuslimsAl-Khadr. And Dalrymple attests to a certain fusion of these two figures with both Christians and Muslims referring to him Al-Khadr and a Muslim happy to have received a cure from the oil from the lamp burning in front of an icon of Saint George. He asked the priest at the shrine "Do you get many Muslims coming here?" The priest replied, "We get hundreds! Almost as many as the Christian pilgrims. Often, when I come in here, I find Muslims all over the floor, in the aisles, up and down."[60][61]
TheEncyclopædia Britannica from 1911 quoted the Scottish theologianG. A. Smith in hisHistoric Geography of the Holy Land (1894), assuming: "The Mahommedans who usually identify St. George with the prophet Elijah, at Lydda confound his legend with one about Christ himself. Their name for Antichrist isDajjal, and they have a tradition that Jesus will slay Antichrist by the gate of Lydda. The notion sprang from an ancientbas-relief of George and the Dragon on the Lydda church. But Dajjal may be derived, by a very common confusion betweenn andl, fromDagon, whose nametwo neighbouring villages bear to this day, while one of the gates of Lydda used to be called the Gate of Dagon."[62] Theconnection of Saint George with a dragon was familiar since theGolden Legend ofJacobus de Voragine and can be traced to the close of the 6th century. AtApollonia–Arsuf orJoppa — neither of them far from Lydda — themythological heroPerseus had slain the sea-monster that threatened thevirginAndromeda, and George, like many other Christian saints, entered into the inheritance of veneration previously enjoyed by a pagan hero as the FrencharchaeologistCharles Simon Clermont-Ganneau wrote.[63] Apollonia–Arsuf was one of several places where pagan imagination placed the exposure of Andromeda. Clermont-Ganneau derives Arsuf from Reseph, thePhoenician deity whom he identifies with Perseus. The myth travelled to Lydda (al-Lydd), where Perseus became George; and from there, mainly by the influence of thecrusaders, Perseus and his dragon walked into the medieval European imagination.
Due to theChristian influence on the Druze faith, twoChristian saints have become among theDruze's most venerated figures: Saint George andSaint Elias.[64] Thus, in all the villages inhabited by Druze and Christians in centralMount Lebanon a Christian church or Druzemaqam is dedicated to either one of them.[64] According to scholar Ray Jabre Mouawad the Druzes appreciated the two saints for their bravery:Saint George because he confronted the dragon and Saint Elias because he competed with the pagan priests ofBaal and won over them.[64] In both cases the explanations provided by Christians is that Druzes were attracted towarrior saints that resemble their own militarised society.[64]
George is described as a prophetic figure in Islamic sources.[37] George is venerated by some Christians and Muslims because of his composite personality combining several biblical, Quranic and other ancient mythical heroes.[37] In some sources, he is identified withElijah or Mar Elis, George or Mar Jirjus and in others asal-Khidr. The last epithet meaning the "verdant prophet", is common to Christian, Muslim, and Druze folk piety. Samuel Curtiss who visited an artificial cave dedicated to him where he is identified with Elijah, reports that childless Muslim women used to visit the shrine to pray for children. Per tradition, he was brought to his place of martyrdom in chains, thus priests of Church of St. George chain the sick especially the mentally ill to a chain for overnight or longer for healing. This is sought after by both Muslims and Christians.[55]
St George killed the dragon in this country; and the place is shown close toBeyroot. Many churches and convents are named after him. The church at Lydda is dedicated to George; so isa convent nearBethlehem, and another small one just opposite theJaffa Gate, and others beside. The Arabs believe that George can restore mad people to their senses, and to say a person has been sent to St. George's is equivalent to saying he has been sent to a madhouse. It is singular that the Moslem Arabs adopted this veneration for St George, and send their mad people to be cured by him, as well as the Christians, but they commonly call himEl Khudder – The Green Man – according to their favourite manner of using epithets instead of names.
The mosque of Nabi Jurjis, which was restored byTimur in the 14th century, was located in Mosul and supposedly contained the tomb of George.[66] It was destroyed in July 2014by the occupyingIslamic State of Iraq and the Levant, who also destroyed the Mosque of the Prophet Sheeth (Seth) and theMosque of the Prophet Younis (Jonah). The militants claimed that such mosques have become places for apostasy instead of prayer.[67]
George orHazrat Jurjays was the patron saint of Mosul. Along withTheodosius, he was revered by both Christian and Muslim communities ofJazira andAnatolia. The wall paintings ofKırk Dam Altı Kilise atBelisırma dedicated to him are dated between 1282 and 1304. These paintings depict him as a mounted knight appearing between donors including a Georgian lady called Thamar and her husband, the Emir and Consul Basil, while the Seljuk SultanMesud II and Byzantine EmperorAndronicus II are also named in the inscriptions.[68]
The reverence for Saint George, who is often identified withAl-Khidr, is deeply integrated into various aspects of Druze culture and religious practices.[71] He is seen as a guardian of theDruze community and a symbol of their enduring faith and resilience. Additionally, Saint George is regarded as a protector and healer in Druze tradition.[71] The story of Saint George slaying the dragon is interpreted allegorically, representing the triumph of good over evil and the protection of the faithful from harm.[71]
George is very much honoured by the Eastern Orthodox Church, wherein he is referred to as a "Great Martyr", and inOriental Orthodoxy overall. Hismajor feast day is on 23 April (Julian calendar 23 April currently corresponds to Gregorian calendar 6 May). If, however, the feast occurs beforeEaster, it is celebrated onEaster Monday, instead. The Russian Orthodox Church also celebrates two additional feasts in honour of George. One is on 3 November, commemorating theconsecration of acathedral dedicated to him in Lydda during the reign ofConstantine the Great (305–337). When the church was consecrated, therelics of George were transferred there. The other feast is on 26 November for a church dedicated to him inKyiv,c. 1054.
InBulgaria, George's day (Bulgarian:Гергьовден) is celebrated on 6 May, when it is customary to slaughter and roast a lamb. George's day is also apublic holiday.
InEgypt, theCoptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria refers to George (Coptic:Ⲡⲓⲇⲅⲓⲟⲥ Ⲅⲉⲟⲣⲅⲓⲟⲥ or ⲅⲉⲱⲣⲅⲓⲟⲥ) as the "Prince of Martyrs" and celebrates his martyrdom on the 23rd ofParemhat of theCoptic calendar, equivalent to 1 May.[74] TheCopts also celebrate the consecration of the first church dedicated to him on the seventh of the month of Hatour of the Coptic calendar usually equivalent to 17 November.
In India, theSyro-Malabar Catholic Church, one of the oriental catholic churches (Eastern Catholic Churches), andMalankara Orthodox Church venerate George. The main pilgrim centres of the saint in India are at Aruvithura and Puthuppally in Kottayam District,Edathua[75] inAlappuzha district, andEdappally[76] inErnakulam district of the southern state ofKerala. The saint is commemorated each year from 27 April to 14 May at Edathua.[77] On 27 April after the flag hoisting ceremony by the parish priest, the statue of the saint is taken from one of the altars and placed at the extension of the church to be venerated by devotees till 14 May. The main feast day is 7 May, when the statue of the saint along with other saints is taken in procession around the church. Intercession to George of Edathua is believed to be efficacious in repelling snakes and in curing mental ailments. The sacred relics of George were brought toAntioch fromMardin in 900 and were taken to Kerala, India, from Antioch in 1912 by Mar Dionysius of Vattasseril and kept in the Orthodox seminary at Kundara, Kerala. H.H. Mathews II Catholicos had given the relics to St. George churches at Puthupally, Kottayam District, andChandanappally, Pathanamthitta district.
27 January – Commemoration of the Miracle (deliverance of the island ofZakynthos from the plague) of the Great Martyr George inZakynthos in 1689/1688. (Greek Orthodox Church)[83]
12 April – Gerontius from Cappadocia,martyr, father of George, husband of Polychronia (c. 290)[84]
Thecountry of Georgia, where devotions to the saint date back to the fourth century, is not technically named after the saint, but is a well-attestedback-formation of the English name. However, many towns and cities around the world are. George is one of the patron saints of Georgia. Exactly 365 Orthodox churches in Georgia are named after George according to the number of days in a year. According to legend, George was cut into 365 pieces after he fell in battle and every single piece was spread throughout the entire country.[90][91][92]
George is the patron saint ofEthiopia.[93] He is also the patron saint of theEthiopian Orthodox Church; George slaying the dragon is one of the most frequently used subjects oficons in the church.[94]
George is also one of the patron saints of the Mediterranean island ofGozo, part of theMaltese archipelago.[95] In a battle between the Maltese and theMoors, St. George was alleged to have been seen withSt. Paul andSt. Agatha, protecting the Maltese. George is the protector of the island of Gozo and the patron of Gozo's largest city,Victoria.St. George's Basilica in Victoria is dedicated to him.[96]
English recruitment poster from World War I, featuring George and the Dragon
InPortugal devotions to Saint George date back to the 12th century.Nuno Álvares Pereira attributed the victory of the Portuguese in thebattle of Aljubarrota in 1385 to Saint George. During the reign of D.John I of Portugal (1357–1433), Saint George became the patron saint of Portugal and the king ordered that the saint's image on the horse be carried in theCorpus Christi procession. The flag of George (white with red cross) was also carried by the Portuguese troops and hoisted in the fortresses, during the 15th century. "Portugal and Saint George" (Portuguese:Portugal e São Jorge) became thebattle cry of the Portuguese troops, being still today the battle cry of thePortuguese Army, with simply "Saint George" (Portuguese:São Jorge) being the battle cry of thePortuguese Navy.[97]
Devotions to Saint George inBrazil was influenced by the Portuguese colonisation. Saint George is the unofficial patron saint of the city ofRio de Janeiro (the official patron beingSt. Sebastian) and of the city ofSão Jorge dos Ilhéus (Saint George ofIlhéus). Additionally, Saint George is the patron saint of the Scouts andCavalry of theBrazilian Army. In May 2019, he was made official as the patron saint of theState of Rio de Janeiro, next to St. Sebastian.[98] George is also revered in severalAfro-Brazilian religions, such asUmbanda, where it issyncretised in the form of theorishaOgun. However, the connection of George with the Moon is purely Brazilian, with a strong influence of African culture. Tradition says that the spots at the Moon's surface represent the miraculous saint, his horse and his sword slaying the dragon and ready to defend those who seek his help.[99]
George is also the patron saint of the region ofAragon, in Spain, where his feast day is celebrated on 23 April and is known as "Aragon Day", orDía de Aragón in Spanish. He became the patron saint of the formerKingdom of Aragon andCrown of Aragon when KingPedro I of Aragon won thebattle of Alcoraz in 1096. Legend has it that victory eventually fell to the Christian armies when George appeared to them on the battlefield, helping them secure the conquest of the city ofHuesca which had been under the Muslim control of theTaifa ofZaragoza. The battle, which had begun two years earlier in 1094, was long and arduous, and had also taken the life of King Pedro's own father, KingSancho Ramirez. With the Aragonese spirits flagging, it is said that George descending from heaven on his charger and bearing a dark red cross, appeared at the head of the Christian cavalry leading the knights into battle. Interpreting this as a sign of protection from God, the Christian militia returned emboldened to the battle field, more energised than ever, convinced theirs was the banner of the one true faith. Defeated, the Moors rapidly abandoned the battlefield. After two years of being locked down under siege, Huesca fell and King Pedro made his triumphal entry into the city. To celebrate this victory, the cross of St. George was adopted as the personal coat of arms of Huesca and Aragon. After the fall of Huesca, King Pedro aided the military leader and nobleman, Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, otherwise known asEl Cid, with a coalition army from Aragon in the long conquest of theKingdom of Valencia.
Tales of King Pedro's success at Huesca and in leading his expedition of armies with El Cid against the Moors, under the auspices of George on his standard, spread quickly throughout the realm and beyond the Crown of Aragon, and Christian armies throughout Europe quickly began adopting George as their protector and patron, during all subsequent Crusades to theHoly Land. By 1117, the military order of Templars adopted the Cross of St. George as a simple, unifying sign for international Christian militia embroidered on the left hand side of their tunics, placed above the heart.
The association of St. George with chivalry and noblemen in Aragon continued through the ages. Indeed, even the authorMiguel de Cervantes, in his book on the adventures ofDon Quixote, also mentions thejousting events that took place at the festival of St. George inZaragoza in Aragon where one could gain international renown in winning a joust against any of the knights of Aragon.
Saint George (Catalan:Sant Jordi) is also the patron saint ofCatalonia. His cross appears in many buildings and local flags, including theflag of Barcelona, the Catalan capital, thecrest of FC Barcelona as well as in the ancient emblem of theGeneralitat. The first references of devotion to Saint George in Catalonia came back to the 11th century. The legend of the saint spread throughout thePrincipality of Catalonia until, in 1456, he was officially named by theCatalan Courts (the parliament) as the patron saint of Catalonia, and the annual commemoration involving roses began. A Catalan variation to the traditional legend places George's life story as having occurred in the town ofMontblanc, nearTarragona. One of the highest civil distinctions awarded by theGovernment of Catalonia is theSt. George's Cross (Creu de Sant Jordi). TheSant Jordi Awards have been awarded in Barcelona since 1957.
In Valencia, Catalonia, the Balearics, Malta, Sicily and Sardinia, the origins of the veneration of St. George go back to their shared history as territories under theCrown of Aragon, thereby sharing the same legend.
It became fashionable in the 15th century, with the full development of classical heraldry, to provideattributed arms to saints and other historical characters from the pre-heraldic ages. The widespread attribution to George of the red cross on a white field in Western art – "Saint George's Cross" – probably first arose inGenoa, which had adopted this image fortheir flag and George as their patron saint in the 12th century. Avexillum beati Georgii is mentioned in the Genovese annals for the year 1198, referring to a red flag with a depiction of George and the dragon. An illumination of this flag is shown in the annals for the year 1227. The Genovese flag with the red cross was used alongside this "George's flag", from at least 1218, and was known as theinsignia cruxata comunis Janue ("cross ensign of the commune of Genoa"). The flag showing the saint himself was the city's principal war flag, but the flag showing the plain cross was used alongside it in the 1240s.[103]
The term "Saint George's cross" was at first associated with any plainGreek cross touching the edges of the field (not necessarily red on white).[104]Thomas Fuller in 1647 spoke of "the plain or St George's cross" as "the mother of all the others" (that is, the otherheraldic crosses).[105]
George is most commonly depicted in early icons,mosaics, andfrescos wearing armour contemporary with the depiction, executed in gilding and silver colour, intended to identify him as aRoman soldier. Particularly after theFall of Constantinople and George's association with thecrusades, he is often portrayed mounted upon awhite horse. Thus, a 2003 Vatican stamp (issued on the anniversary of the Saint's death) depicts an armoured George atop a white horse, killing the dragon.[106]
Eastern Orthodox iconography also permits George to ride a white horse, as in a Russian icon in the British museum collection.[107]In the south Lebanese village ofMieh Mieh, the Saint George Church forMelkite Catholics commissioned for its 75th jubilee in 2012 (under the guidance of Mgr Sassine Gregoire) the only icons in the world portraying the whole life of George, as well as the scenes of his torture and martyrdom (drawn in eastern iconographic style).[108]
George may also be portrayed withSaint Demetrius, another earlysoldier saint. When the two saintly warriors are together and mounted upon horses, they may resemble earthly manifestations of the archangelsMichael andGabriel. Eastern traditions distinguish the two as George rides a white horse and Demetrius a red horse (the redpigment may appear black if it has bituminised). George can also be identified by his spearing a dragon, whereas Demetrius may be spearing a human figure, representingMaximian.
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^Otto Friedrich August Meinardus,Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity (1999),p. 315Archived 13 November 2022 at theWayback Machine.
^Domar: the calendrical and liturgical cycle of the Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church, Armenian Orthodox Theological Research Institute, 2002, pp. 504–505
^Richardson, Robert D.; Moser, Barry, eds. (1996),Emerson, p. 520,George of Cappadocia ... [held] the contract to supply the army with bacon ... embracedArianism ... [and was] promoted ... to the episcopal throne ofAlexandria ... When Julian came, George was dragged to prison, the prison was burst open by a mob, and George was lynched ... [he] became in good time Saint George of England.
^ab"Saint George",Catholic Encyclopedia,it is not improbable that the apocryphal Acts have borrowed some incidents from the story of the Arian bishop.
^abThurston, Herbert (1913)."St. George" . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. "There seems, therefore, no ground for doubting the historical existence of St. George, even though he is not commemorated in the Syrian, or in the primitive Hieronymian Martyrologium, but no faith can be placed in the attempts that have been made to fill up any of the details of his history. For example, it is now generally admitted that St. George cannot safely be identified by the nameless martyr spoken of by Eusebius (Church History VIII.5), who tore down Diocletian's edict of persecution at Nicomedia. The version of the legend in which Diocletian appears as persecutor is not primitive. Diocletian is only a rationalised form of the name Dadianus. Moreover, the connection of the saint's name with Nicomedia is inconsistent with the early cultus at Diospolis. Still less is St. George to be considered, as suggested by Gibbon, Vetter, and others, a legendary double of the disreputable bishop, George of Cappadocia, the Arian opponent of St. Athanasius."
Immediately on the publication of thedecree against the churches in Nicomedia, a certain man, not obscure but very highly honored with distinguished temporal dignities, moved with zeal toward God, and incited with ardent faith, seized the edict as it was posted openly and publicly, and tore it to pieces as a profane and impious thing; and this was done while two of the sovereigns were in the same city,—the oldest of all, and the one who held the fourth place in the government after him. But this man, first in that place, after distinguishing himself in such a manner suffered those things which were likely to follow such daring, and kept his spirit cheerful and undisturbed till death.
^Walter, Christopher (2003),The Warrior Saints in Byzantine Art and Tradition, Ashgate Publishing, p. 110,ISBN1-84014-694-X. Bibliotheca Hagiographica Graeca 271, 272.
^Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911)."George, Saint" .Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 737.In the canon of Pope Gelasius (494) George is mentioned in a list of those 'whose names are justly reverenced among men, but whose acts are known only to God'
^Collins, Michael (2012). "3 The Greek and Latin traditions".St George and the dragons: the making of English identity. Fonthill.ISBN978-1-78155-649-8.
^abGuiley, Rosemary (2001).The Encyclopedia of Saints. Infobase. p. 129.ISBN978-1-4381-3026-2.George was an historical figure. According to an account by Metaphrastes, George was born in Cappadocia (in modern Turkey) to a noble Christian family; his mother was Palestinian
^Heylin, A. (1862),The Journal of Sacred Literature and Biblical Record, vol. 1, p. 244.Darch, John H (2006),Saints on Earth, Church House Press, p. 56,ISBN978-0-7151-4036-9.Walter, Christopher (2003),The Warrior Saints in Byzantine Art and Tradition, Ashgate Publishing, p. 112,ISBN1-84014-694-X.
^Hackwood, Fred (2003),Christ Lore the Legends, Traditions, Myths, Kessinger Publishing, p. 255,ISBN0-7661-3656-6.
^Michael Collins,St George and the Dragons: The Making of English Identity (2018),p. 129Archived 13 November 2022 at theWayback Machine
^Thompson, Anne B.; Whatley, E. Gordon; Upchurch, Robert K. (eds.)."Saints' Lives in Middle English Collections".METS (Middle English Text Series). The Rossell Hope Robbins Library. Retrieved28 March 2025.
^de Voragine, Jacobus (1275). "The Life of S. George". In Ellis, F.S. (ed.).The Golden Legend or Lives of the Saints. Vol. 3 (6th ed.). Temple Classics (published 1931). pp. 58–61.
^Pirlo, Paolo O. (1997). "St. George".My first book of saints. Sons of Holy Mary Immaculate – Quality Catholic Publications. pp. 83–85.ISBN971-91595-4-5.
^De Voragine, Jacobus (1995),The Golden Legend, Princeton University Press, p. 238,ISBN978-0-691-00153-1.
^Gélase; Neil, Bronwen; Allen, Pauline (2014).The Letters of Gelasius I (492–496): Pastor and Micro-Manager of the Church of Rome. Adnotationes. Turnhout: Brepols. p. 160.ISBN978-2-503-55299-6.
^Christopher Walter, "The Origins of the Cult of Saint George",Revue des études byzantines 53 (1995), 295–326 (p. 296) (persee.frArchived 28 May 2019 at theWayback Machine)
^Pringle, Denys (1998),The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, Cambridge University Press, p. 25,ISBN0-521-39037-0.
^Eastern Christian Publications,Theosis: Calendar of Saints (2020), pp. 75–76.
^Samantha Riches,St. George: Hero, Martyr and Myth (Sutton, 2000),ISBN0750924527, p. 19.
^Runciman, Steven (1951–1952).A History of the Crusades I: The First Crusade. Penguin Classics. pp. 204–205.ISBN978-0-14-198550-3.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Catholic Encyclopedia 1913,s.v. "Orders of St. George"Archived 22 October 2021 at theWayback Machine omits Genoa and Hungary: see David Scott Fox,Saint George: The Saint with Three Faces (1983:59–63, 98–123), noted by McClellan 999:6 note 13. Additional Orders of St. George were founded in the eighteenth century (Catholic Encyclopedia).
^Only the most essential work might be done on afestum duplex
^Muriel C. McClendon, "A Moveable Feast: Saint George's Day Celebrations and Religious Change in Early Modern England"The Journal of British Studies38.1 (January 1999:1–27).
^abReligion and Culture in Medieval Islam by Richard G. Hovannisian, Georges Sabagh (2000)ISBN0-521-62350-2, Cambridge University Press, pp. 109–110
^History Project, Christian (2003).By this Sign: A.D. 250 to 350: from the Decian Persecution to the Constantine Era. Christian History Project. p. 44.ISBN9780968987322.St. George is also the patron saint of Lebanese and Palestinian Christians.
^Melton, J. Gordon (2021).Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations. ABC-CLIO. p. 334.ISBN9781598842050.He is also the patron saint of the Palestinian Christian community.
^S. Hassan, Wail (2014).Immigrant Narratives: Orientalism and Cultural Translation in Arab American and Arab British Literature. Oxford University Press. p. 83.ISBN9780199354979.There are several examples of this: "Besides being the patron saint of England and of the Christians of Syria.
^abcdBeaurepaire, Pierre-Yves (2017).Religious Interactions in Europe and the Mediterranean World: Coexistence and Dialogue from the 12th to the 20th Centuries. Taylor & Francis. pp. 310–314.ISBN9781351722179.
^de Bles, Arthur (2004),How to Distinguish the Saints in Art, p. 86,ISBN1-4179-0870-X.
^de Oliveira Marques, AH; André, Vítor; Wyatt, SS (1971),Daily Life in Portugal in the Late Middle Ages, University of Wisconsin Press, p. 216,ISBN0-299-05584-1
^Santos, Georgina Silva dos: Ofício e sangue: a Irmandade de São Jorge e a Inquisição na Lisboa moderna. Lisboa: Colibri; Portimão: Instituto de Cultura Ibero-Atlântica, 2005
Brook, E.W., 1925.Acts of Saint George in seriesAnalecta Gorgiana 8 (Gorgias Press).
Burgoyne, Michael H. 1976.A Chronological Index to the Muslim Monuments of Jerusalem. InThe Architecture of Islamic Jerusalem. Jerusalem: The British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem.
Gabidzashvili, Enriko. 1991.Saint George: In Ancient Georgian Literature. Armazi – 89: Tbilisi, Georgia.
Good, Jonathan, 2009.The Cult of Saint George in Medieval England (Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press).
Loomis, C. Grant, 1948.White Magic, An Introduction to the Folklore of Christian Legend (Cambridge: Medieval Society of America)
Natsheh, Yusuf. 2000. "Architectural survey", inOttoman Jerusalem: The Living City 1517–1917. Edited by Sylvia Auld and Robert Hillenbrand (London: Altajir World of Islam Trust) pp. 893–899.
Whatley, E. Gordon, editor, with Anne B. Thompson and Robert K. Upchurch, 2004.St. George and the Dragon in the South English Legendary (East Midland Revision, c. 1400) Originally published inSaints' Lives in Middle English Collections (Kalamazoo, Michigan: Medieval Institute Publications) (on-line introduction)
George Menachery,Saint Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India. Vol.II Trichur – 73.
Hail GeorgeArchived 16 February 2013 at theWayback Machine Radio webcast explains how Saint George came to be confused with some Afro-Brazilian deities
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