While the English wordsaint (deriving from theLatinsanctus) originated in Christianity,historians of religion tend to use the appellation "in a more general way to refer to the state of special holiness that many religions attribute to certain people", referring to the Hindurishi, Sikhbhagat orguru, the Shintoistkami, the Taoistimmortal orzhenren, the Jewishtzadik, the Islamicwalī/fakir, and the Buddhistarhat orbodhisattva also as saints.[4][5] Depending on the religion, saints are recognized either by official declaration, as in Roman Catholicism or Eastern Orthodoxy, or by popular acclamation (seefolk saint).[6]
The English wordsaint comes from the Latinsanctus, with the Greek equivalent beingἅγιος (hagios) 'holy'.[7] The wordἅγιος appears 229 times in the GreekNew Testament, and its English translation 60 times in the corresponding text of theKing James Version of theBible.[8]
The wordsanctus was originally a technical one inancient Roman religion, but due to itsglobalized use in Christianity the modern wordsaint is now also used as a translation of comparable terms for persons "worthy of veneration for their holiness or sanctity" in other religions.
Many religions also use similar concepts (but different terminology) to venerate persons worthy of some honor.[4] Author John A. Coleman of theGraduate Theological Union, Berkeley, California, wrote that saints across various cultures and religions have the followingfamily resemblances:[9]
a life often refusing material attachments or comforts
possession of a special andrevelatory relation to theholy.
Theanthropologist Lawrence Babb, in an article about IndianguruSathya Sai Baba, asks the question "Who is a saint?" and responds by saying that in the symbolic infrastructure of some religions, there is the image of a certain extraordinary spiritual person's "miraculous powers", to whom frequently a certain moral presence is attributed. These saintly figures, he asserts, are "the focal points of spiritual force-fields". They exert "powerful attractive influence on followers but touch the inner lives of others in transforming ways as well".[10]
In theHebrew Bible, English "saints" most often renders terms of holiness, especially the adjectiveqādôš ("set apart, consecrated, holy"), and in the plural it appears as "holy ones" or "saints," with emphasis on consecration and ideally the absence of moral and ceremonial defilement.[11] TheOld Testament does not present a fixed category of individual "saints," though related ideas appear in prophet and martyr traditions in later narratives.[12]
In theApostolic Age, New Testament writers use "saints" predominantly in the plural as a collective designation for Christians in a given locality; the only clear singular instance is distributive inPhilippians 4:21 ("every saint"), so the term marks the church as a people set apart for God rather than an elite subgroup.[13][14][15]
Paul makes this corporate sense explicit by identifying "the saints" with "you" in1Corinthians 6:2, so thatoi hagioi functions as a self-designation for all Christians; he also addresses communities as "saints" in letter openings/closings and often speaks of "all the saints" to emphasize corporate unity across locations (Romans 1:7; 1 Cor 1:2; 2 Cor 1:1; Phil 1:1;Colossians 1:2).[16][17]
In practical matters he urges "service" and aid "for the saints," including the Jerusalem poor, sometimes with abbreviated phrasing that presumes this shared self-designation (e.g., 1 Cor 16:1; 2 Cor 8:4; 9:1, 12 ≈ Rom 15:26).[18] Scholars also observecovenantal–eschatological and temple/priestly overtones in such language (e.g., judging the world/angels; participation in Christ’s altar).[19][20][21][22] Other New Testament writers vary: calling believershagioi is common inHebrews andJude,[23] it is frequent inRevelation with an emphasis on prayer/endurance and is used for the same group as "believers/Christians,"[24] while1 Peter does not usehagioi as Paul does (even as it speaks extensively of holiness).[25][26]
Standard reference works concur thathagioi designates all believers (not a special class), that the plural, collective usage predominates, and that the underlying idea is consecration/belonging to God.[27][28][29] Later Christian traditions (e.g. Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, Protestantism) developed distinct practices of recognizing exemplary figures, but this stands apart from the New Testament’s collective usage.[30][15][14]
According to theCatholic Church, a saint may be anyone inHeaven (besidesGod), whether recognized on Earth or not, who forms the "great cloud ofwitnesses" (Hebrews 12:1).[31][32] These "may include our own mothers, grandmothers or other loved ones (cf.2 Timothy 1:5)" who may have not always lived perfect lives, but "amid their faults and failings they kept moving forward and proved pleasing to the Lord".[31] The titleSaint denotes a person who has been formallycanonized – that is, officially and authoritatively declared a saint – by the church as holder of theKeys of the Kingdom of Heaven, and is therefore believed to be in Heaven by thegrace of God. There are many persons who the church believes to be in Heaven who have not been formally canonized and who are otherwise titled saints because of the fame of their holiness.[33] Sometimes the word saint also denotes living Christians.[34] TheSecond Vatican Council noted that some saints are commemorated by the whole church because they "are truly of universal importance", while many others have significance for "a particular Church or nation orfamily of religious" and their lives should be celebrated within those particular contexts.[35]
In his bookSaint of the Day, editor Leonard Foley says that the "[Saints'] surrender to God's love was so generous an approach to the total surrender ofJesus that the Church recognizes them as heroes and heroines worthy to be held up for our inspiration. They remind us that the Church is holy, can never stop being holy and is called to show the holiness of God by living the life of Christ."[37]
The Catholic Church teaches that it does not make or create saints, but rather recognizes them. Proofs of heroic virtue required in the process of beatification will serve to illustrate in detail the general principles exposed above[38][which?] upon proof of their holiness or likeness to God.
On 3 January 993,Pope John XV became the first pope to proclaim a person a saint from outside the diocese of Rome: on the petition of the German ruler, he had canonized BishopUlrich of Augsburg. Before that time, the popular "cults", or venerations, of saints had been local and spontaneous and were confirmed by the localbishop.[39]Pope John XVIII subsequently permitted a cult of five Polishmartyrs.[39]Pope Benedict VIII later declared the Armenian hermitSimeon of Mantua to be a saint, but it was not until the pontificate ofPope Innocent III that the popes reserved to themselves the exclusive authority to canonize saints, so that local bishops needed the confirmation of the Pope.[39]Walter of Pontoise was the last person inWestern Europe to be canonized by an authority other than the Pope:Hugh de Boves, theArchbishop of Rouen, canonized him in 1153.[40][41] Thenceforth a decree ofPope Alexander III in 1170 reserved the prerogative of canonization to the Pope, insofar as theLatin Church was concerned.[40]
Theveneration of saints, inLatincultus, or the "cult of the Saints", describes a particular popular devotion or entrustment of one's self to a particular saint or group of saints. Although the termworship is sometimes used,[citation needed] it is only used with the older English connotation of honoring or respecting (dulia) a person. According to the church, divine worship is in the strict sense reserved only to God (latria) and never to the saints. One is permitted to ask the saints tointercede or pray to God for persons still on Earth,[44] just as one can ask someone on Earth to pray for him.
A saint may be designated as apatron saint of a particular cause, profession, church or locale, or invoked as a protector against specific illnesses or disasters, sometimes by popular custom and sometimes by official declarations of the church.[45] Saints are not believed to have power of their own, but only that granted by God.Relics of saints are respected, or venerated, similar to the veneration of holy images andicons. The practice in past centuries of venerating relics of saints with the intention of obtaining healing from God through their intercession is taken from theearly Church.[46] For example, an Americandeacon claimed in 2000 thatJohn Henry Newman[47] (then ablessed) interceded with God to cure him of a physical illness. The deacon, Jack Sullivan, asserted that after addressing Newman he was cured ofspinal stenosis in a matter of hours. In 2009, a panel of theologians concluded that Sullivan's recovery was the result of his prayer to Newman. According to the church, to be deemed a miracle, "a medical recovery must be instantaneous, not attributable to treatment, disappear for good."[48]
Some of the saints have a special iconographicsymbol by tradition, e.g.,Saint Lawrence, deacon and martyr, is identified by agridiron because he is believed to have been burned to death on one. This symbol is found, for instance, in the Canadian heraldry of the office responsible for theSt. Lawrence Seaway.
Formalcanonization is a lengthy process, often of many years or even centuries.[49] There are four major steps to become a saint.[50][51] The first stage in this process is an investigation of the candidate's life by an expert. After this, the official report on the candidate is submitted to the bishop of the pertinent diocese and more study is undertaken. The information is then sent to theDicastery for the Causes of Saints of theHoly See for evaluation at the universal level of the church.[52] If the application is approved the candidate may be granted the titleVenerable (stage 2).[52] Further investigation, step 3, may lead to the candidate'sbeatification with the titleBlessed,[52] which is elevation to the class of theBeati. Next, and at a minimum, proof of two important miracles obtained from God through the intercession of the candidate are required for formal canonization as a saint. Finally, in the last stage, after all of these procedures are complete, thepope may canonize the candidate as a saint[52] for veneration by the universal church.
Once a person has been canonized, the deceased body of the saint is considered holy as arelic.[53] The remains of saints are called holy relics and are usually used in churches. Saints' personal belongings may also be used as relics.[53]
In theEastern Orthodox Church, a saint is defined as anyone who is inHeaven besides God, whether recognised here on earth, or not. By this definition,Adam and Eve,Moses, the variousprophets, andarchangels are all given the title of "Saint". Sainthood does not necessarily reflect a moral model, but communion with God; there are many examples of people who lived in greatsin and became saints byhumility andrepentance: SaintsMary of Egypt,Moses the Ethiopian, andDismas, the repentant thief who was crucified withJesus Christ. Therefore, a more complete Orthodox definition of what a saint is, has to do with the way that saints, through their humility and their love of mankind, saved inside them the entire Church, and loved all people.
Orthodox belief believes that Godreveals saints through answeredprayers and othermiracles. Saints are usually recognised by their local community, often by people who directly knew them. As their popularity grows they are often then recognised by the entire Church through theHoly Spirit. The wordcanonization means that a Christian has been found worthy to have his name placed in the canon (official list) of saints of the Church. The formal process of recognition involves deliberation by asynod of bishops.[2][54] The Orthodox Church does not require the manifestation of miracles, as it does inRoman Catholicism; what is required is evidence of a virtuous life and priorlocal veneration of the saint.[3]
If the ecclesiastical review is successful, this is followed by a service of glorification in which the saint is given a day on theliturgical calendar to be celebrated by the entire Church.[55] This does not, however, make the person a saint; the person already was a saint and the Church ultimately recognized it.
As a general rule, onlyclergy will touchrelics in order to move them or carry them in procession; however, inveneration the faithful will kiss the relic to show love and respect toward the saint. Thealtar in an Orthodox Church usually contains relics of saints,[56] often ofmartyrs. Church interiors are covered with theicons of saints. When an Orthodox Christian venerates icons of a saint he is venerating the image of God which he sees in the saint.
Because the Church shows no true distinction between the living and the dead, as the saints are considered to be alive inheaven, saints are referred to as if they are still alive, and arevenerated, notworshipped. They are believed to be able tointercede for the living forsalvation or other requests and help mankind either through direct communion with God or by personalmiraculous intervention.
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the titleὍσιος,Hosios (f.ὉσίαHosia) is also used. This is a title attributed to saints who had lived amonastic oreremitic life equivalent to the more usual title of "Saint".[57]
In theAnglican Communion and theContinuing Anglican movement, the title of Saint refers to a person who has been elevated by popular opinion as a pious and holy person. The saints are seen as models of holiness to be imitated, and as a "cloud of witnesses" that strengthen and encourage the believer during his or her spiritual journey.[58] The saints are seen as elder brothers and sisters in Christ. Official Anglican creeds recognize the existence of the saints in heaven.
Inhigh-church contexts, such asAnglo-Catholicism, a saint is generally one to whom has been attributed (and who has generally demonstrated) a high level of holiness andsanctity. In this use, a saint is therefore not abeliever only, but one who has been transformed by virtue. InCatholicism, a saint is a special sign of God's activity.[relevant?] The veneration of saints is sometimes misunderstood to be worship, in which case it is derisively termed "hagiolatry".
So far as invocation of the saints is concerned,[59] one of theChurch of England'sArticles of Religion "OfPurgatory" condemns "the Romish Doctrine concerning ...(the) Invocation of Saints" as "a fond thing vainly invented, and grounded upon no warranty of Scripture, but rather repugnant to the Word of God". Anglo-Catholics in Anglican provinces using the Articles often make a distinction between a "Romish" and a "Patristic" doctrine concerning the invocation of saints, permitting the latter in accordance with Article XXII. Indeed, the theologianE. J. Bicknell stated that the Anglican view acknowledges that the term "invocation may mean either of two things: the simple request to a saint for his prayers (intercession), 'ora pro nobis', or a request for some particular benefit. In medieval times the saints had come to be regarded as themselves the authors of blessings. Such a view was condemned but the former was affirmed."[60]
Some Anglicans and Anglican churches, particularly Anglo-Catholics, personally ask prayers of the saints. However, such a practice is seldom found in any official Anglican liturgy. Unusual examples of it are found in The Korean Liturgy 1938, the liturgy of the Diocese of Guiana 1959 and The Melanesian English Prayer Book.
Anglicans believe that the only effective Mediator between the believer and God the Father, in terms of redemption and salvation, is God the Son,JesusChrist. Historical Anglicanism has drawn a distinction between the intercession of the saints and the invocation of the saints. The former was generally accepted in Anglican doctrine, while the latter was generally rejected.[60] There are some, however, in Anglicanism, who do beseech the saints' intercession. Those who beseech the saints to intercede on their behalf make a distinction betweenmediator andintercessor, and claim that asking for the prayers of the saints is no different in kind than asking for the prayers of living Christians.Anglo-Catholics understand sainthood in a moreCatholic orOrthodox way,[citation needed] often praying for intercessions from the saints and celebrating their feast days.
According to theChurch of England, a saint is one who is sanctified, as it translates in the Authorized King James Version (1611)2 Chronicles 6:41:
Now therefore arise, O LORD God, into thy resting place, thou, and the ark of thy strength: let thy priests, O LORD God, be clothed with salvation, and let thy saints rejoice in goodness.
"Scripture does not teach calling on the saints or pleading for help from them. For it sets before us Christ alone as mediator, atoning sacrifice, high priest, and intercessor."—A.C. Article XXI.[61]The month of November in the Czech calendar for 1867 (detail). The calendar of saints is given not only for Catholics, but also for "Protestants".
In theLutheran Church, all Christians, whether in Heaven or on Earth, are regarded as saints. However, the church still recognizes and honors specific saints, including some of those recognized by the Catholic Church, but in a qualified way:[neutrality isdisputed] according to theAugsburg Confession,[62] the termsaint is used in the manner of the Catholic Church only insofar as to denote a person who received exceptional grace, was sustained by faith, and whose good works are to be an example to any Christian. Traditional Lutheran belief accounts that prayers to the saints are prohibited, as they are not mediators of redemption.[63][64] But, Lutherans believe that saints pray for the Christian Church in general.[65]Philip Melanchthon, the author of theApology of the Augsburg Confession, approved honoring the saints by saying they are honored in three ways:
1. By thanking God for examples of His mercy;
2. By using the saints as examples for strengthening our faith; and
3. By imitating their faith and other virtues.[66][67][68]
The Lutheran Churches also haveliturgical calendars in which they honor individuals as saints.
While Methodists as a whole do not venerate saints, they do honor and admire them. Methodists believe that all Christians are saints, but mainly use the term to refer to biblical figures, Christian leaders, and martyrs of the faith. Many Methodist churches are named after saints—such as theTwelve Apostles,John Wesley, etc.—although most are named after geographical locations associated with an earlycircuit or prominent location. Methodist congregations observeAll Saints' Day.[71] Many encourage the study of saints, that is, the biographies of holy people.
TheRomish doctrine concerning purgatory, pardon, worshiping, and adoration, as well of images as of relics, and also invocation of saints, is a fond thing, vainly invented, and grounded upon no warrant of Scripture, but repugnant to the Word of God.[72]
In manyProtestant churches, the wordsaint is used more generally to refer to anyone who is a Christian. This is similar in usage toPaul's numerous references in the New Testament of the Bible.[73] In this sense, anyone who is within theBody of Christ (i.e., a professing Christian) is a saint because of their relationship with Christ Jesus. Many Protestants considerintercessory prayers to the saints to beidolatry, since what they perceive to be an application of divine worship that should be given only to God himself is being given to other believers, dead or alive.[74]
Within some Protestant traditions,saint is also used to refer to anyborn-again Christian. Many emphasize the traditionalNew Testament meaning of the word, preferring to write "saint" to refer to any believer, in continuity with the doctrine of thepriesthood of all believers.
"Saints" in Baptist theology refers to the body of 'born-again believers'. The reference 'saints' is a derivative of the word 'sanctified', which means 'set apart for a holy purpose'. In the Apostle Paul's first letter to the Corinthians, he addresses the recipients as saints: "To the church of God that is in Corinth, to those sanctified in Christ Jesus, called to be saints together with all those who in every place call upon the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, both their Lord and ours". (1 Corinthians 1:2, ESV)
The use of "saint" withinthe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) is similar to the Protestant tradition. In the New Testament, saints are all those who have entered into the Christian covenant of baptism. The qualification "latter-day" refers to the doctrine that members are living in the latter days before theSecond Coming of Christ, and is used to distinguish the members of the church, which considers itself the restoration of the ancient Christian church.[75] Members are therefore often referred to as "Latter-day Saints" or "LDS", and among themselves as "saints".[76]
In some theological literature, the use of the termsaint tends to be used in non-Christian contexts as well. In many religions, there are people who have been recognized within their tradition as having fulfilled the highest aspirations of religious teaching. In English, the termsaint is often used to translate this idea from manyworld religions. The Jewishḥasīd ortsaddiq, the Islamicqidees, the ZoroastrianFravashi, the HinduShadhus, the BuddhistArahant orBodhisattva, the DaoistShengren, the ShintoKami, and others have all been referred to as saints.[77]
CubanSantería,Haitian Vodou,Trinidad Orisha-Shango, BrazilianUmbanda,Candomblé, and other similarsyncretist religions adopted the Catholic saints, or at least the images of the saints, and applied their own spirits/deities to them. They are worshipped in churches (where they appear as saints) and in religious festivals, where they appear as thedeities. The namesantería was originally a pejorative term for those whose worship of saints deviated from Catholic norms.
Due to theChristian influence on Druze faith, twoChristian saints become theDruze's favorite venerated figures:Saint George and SaintElijah.[79] Thus, in all the villages inhabited by Druzes and Christians in centralMount Lebanon a Christian church or Druze maqam is dedicated to either one of them.[79] According to scholar Ray Jabre Mouawad the Druzes appreciated the two saints for their bravery:Saint George because he confronted the dragon and Saint Elijah because he competed with the pagan priests ofBaal and won over them.[79] In both cases the explanations provided by Christians is that Druzes were attracted towarrior saints that resemble their own militarized society.[79]
Portrait of the saintlyKanua, a Hindubaba ofMathura, India, also pictured with a halo encircling his head.
Hindu saints are those recognized byHindus as showing a great degree of holiness and sanctity. Hinduism has a long tradition of stories and poetry about saints. There is no formalcanonization process in Hinduism, but over time, many men and women have reached the status of saints among their followers and among Hindus in general. Unlike in Christianity, Hinduism does not canonize people as saints after death, but they can be accepted as saints during their lifetime.[80] Hindu saints have often renounced the world, and are variously calledgurus,sadhus,rishis,devarishis,rajarshis,saptarishis,brahmarshis,swamis,pundits,purohits,pujaris,acharyas,pravaras,yogis,yoginis, and other names.[81]
Some Hindu saints are given god-like status, being seen asincarnations ofVishnu,Shiva,Devi, and other aspects of the Divine—this can happen during their lifetimes, or sometimes many years after their deaths. This explains another common name for Hindu saints: godmen, is invention of western Abrahamic media to a Pagan Ideas.[82]
Besides prophets, according toIslam, saints possessblessings (Arabic: بركة, "baraka") and can performmiracles (Arabic: كرامات,Karāmāt). Saints rank lower thanprophets. However, they can intercede for people on theDay of Judgment, but their intercession is limited compared to the intercession of theProphet Muhammad. Both the tombs of prophets and saints are visited frequently(Ziyarat) as well as visiting modern-day living saints. People seek the advice of a saint in their quest for spiritual fulfilment. Unlike saints in Christianity, Muslim saints are said to be given their rank by God and some with public duties are officially acknowledged by their Sheikh with anijaza, a verbal and written permission to be a spiritual guide. Unlike prophets, women likeRabia of Basra were accepted as saints.[83]
Saints are recognized as having specific traits they can be identified through. These include: floating lights appearing above their tomb, the body not decaying, a pleasant and miraculous odor coming from the body, appearing in the dreams of others who they pray on behalf of, appearing in two places at once, and having normally impossible knowledge.[84]
Islam has had a rich history of veneration of saints (often calledwali, which literally means 'Friend [of God]'),[85] which has declined in some parts of the Islamic world in the twentieth century due to the influence of the various streams ofSalafism. InSunni Islam, the veneration of saints became a very common form of devotion early on,[85] and saints came to be defined in the eighth-century as a group of "special people chosen by God and endowed with exceptional gifts, such as the ability to work miracles."[86] The classical Sunni scholars came to recognize and honor these individuals as venerable people who were both "loved by God and developed a close relationship of love to Him."[86] "Belief in the miracles of saints (karāmāt al-awliyāʾ) ... [became a] requirement in Sunni Islam [during the classical period],"[87] with even medieval critics of the ubiquitous practice ofgrave visitation likeIbn Taymiyyah emphatically declaring: "The miracles of saints are absolutely true and correct, and acknowledged by all Muslim scholars. TheQuran has pointed to it in different places,"A messenger who has instructed them in scripture and wisdom, and sanctify them." (Qur'an 2:129) and thesayings of the Prophet have mentioned it, and whoever denies the miraculous power of saints are innovators or following innovators."[88] The vast majority of saints venerated in the classical Sunni world were theSufis, who were all Sunni mystics who belonged to one of thefour orthodox legal schools of Sunni law.[89]
Veneration of saints eventually became one of the most widespread Sunni practices for more than a millennium, before it was opposed in the twentieth century by theSalafi movement, whose various streams regard it as "being both un-Islamic and backwards ... rather than the integral part of Islam which they were for over a millennium."[90] In a manner similar to theProtestant Reformation,[91] the specific traditional practices whichSalafism has tried to curtail in bothSunni andShia contexts include those ofthe veneration of saints,visiting their graves,seeking their intercession, andhonoring their relics. As Christopher Taylor has remarked: "[Throughout Islamic history] a vital dimension of Islamic piety was the veneration of Muslim saints ... [Due, however to] certain strains of thought within the Islamic tradition itself, particularly pronounced in the nineteenth and the twentieth centuries ... [some modern day] Muslims have either resisted acknowledging the existence of Muslim saints altogether or have viewed their presence and veneration as unacceptable deviations."[92]
The termTzadik, 'righteous', and its associated meanings developed inrabbinic thought from itsTalmudic contrast withḤasīd, 'pious'.
InMorocco, the similarities of Moroccan Jewish and Muslim practices, including saint veneration, were used by colonial powers to claim Morocco was unified and consisted of a distinct nation, but were not sufficiently united to resist imperialism.[93]
The concept ofsant orbhagat is found in North Indian religious thought includingSikhism, most notably inSri Guru Granth Sahib Jee . Figures such asKabir,Ravidas,Namdev, and others are known asSants orBhagats. The termSant is applied in the Sikh and related communities to beings that have attained enlightenment through God realization and spiritual union with God via repeatedly reciting the name of God (Naam Japna). Countless names of God exist. In Sikhism,Naam (spiritual internalization of God's name) is commonly attained through the name ofWaheguru, which translates to "Wondrous Guru".
Sikhs are encouraged to follow the congregation of a Sant (Sadh Sangat) or "The Company of the Holy".Sants grace the Sadh Sangat with knowledge of the Divine God, and how to take greater steps towards obtaining spiritual enlightenment throughNaam.Sants are to be distinguished from "Guru" (such asGuru Nanak) who have compiled the path to God enlightenment in the Sri Guru Granth Sahib. Sikhism states however, that any beings that have become one with God are considered synonymous with God. As such, the fully realized Sant, Guru, and God are considered one.[94]
^Woodward, Kenneth L. (1996).Making Saints. Simon & Sachier. p. 16.ISBN978-0-684-81530-5.Among other Christian churches, the Russian Orthodox retains a vigorous devotion to the saints, especially the early church fathers and martyrs. On rare occasions, new names (usually monks or bishops) are grafted onto their traditional list of saints ... Something like the cult continues among Anglicans and Lutherans, who maintain feast days and calendars of saints. But while the Anglicans have no mechanism for recognizing new saints, the Lutherans from time to time do informally recommend new names (Da Hammarskjold, Dietrich Bonhoeffer, and Pope John XXIII are recent additions) for thanksgiving and remembrance by the faithful. The saint, then, is a familiar figure in all world religions. Only the Roman Catholic Church has a formal, continuous, and highly rationalized process for 'making' saints.
^abBebis, George (n.d.)."The Lives of the Saints".Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America. Retrieved7 May 2016.
^abJones, Lindsay, ed. (2005). "Sainthood".Thomson Gale Encyclopedia of Religion (2nd ed.). Macmillan. p. 8033.Historians of religion have liberated the category of sainthood from its narrower Christian associations and have employed the term in a more general way to refer to the state of special holiness that many religions attribute to certain people. The Jewishḥasīd ortsaddiq, the Muslimwaliy, the Zoroastrianfravashi, the Hindursi orguru, the Buddhistarahant orbodhisattva, the Daoistshengren, the Shintokami and others have all been referred to as saints.
^Gustav, Mensching."Saint – Encyclopedia Britannica". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved13 January 2020.Shintō, the native Japanese religion, is concerned with the veneration of nature and with ancestor worship; it does not have saints according to the standards of ethical perfection or of exceptionally meritorious performance. According to Shintō belief, every person after his death becomes a kami, a supernatural being who continues to have a part in the life of the community, nation, and family. Good men become good and beneficial kamis, bad men become pernicious ones. Being elevated to the status of a divine being is not a privilege peculiar to those with saintly qualities, for evil men also become kamis. There are in Shintō, however, venerated mythical saints—such as Ōkuninushi ("Master of the Great Land") and Sukuma-Bikona (a dwarf deity)—who are considered to be the discoverers and patrons of medicine, magic, and the art of brewing rice.
^Ben-Ami, Issachar (1998).Saint Veneration Among the Jews in Morocco. Wayne State University Press. p. 13.ISBN978-0-8143-2198-0. Retrieved7 September 2012.Veneration of saints is a universal phenomenon. All monotheistic and polytheistic creeds contain something of its religious dimension ...
^Tenney, Merrill C.; Silva, Moisés (2011).Zondervan Illustrated Bible Dictionary. Zondervan.In the OT, this English word is used primarily to render the Hebrew adjective qādôš H7705, which means "set apart, consecrated, holy." When the plural is used substantivally, it is translated "holy ones" or "saints" (Ps. 16:3 et al.). The focus of this term is on the CONSECRATION of the subject involved, but all people consecrated to God are ideally to be free from moral and ceremonial defilement.
^Jenni, Ernst; Westermann, Claus, eds. (1997).Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament. Hendrickson Publishers.The notion of individual "saints" does not occur in the OT, although the concept is present in the prophet and martyr legends in canonical and noncanonical literature.
^Harrison, E. F. (1960).Baker’s Dictionary of Theology. Baker Book House. p. 468.In the NT, however, saint is applied to all believers. It is a synonym for Christian brother (Col. 1:2). Except for Phil. 4:21, it is not used in the singular, and even there it reflects the corporate idea -"every saint."
^abTenney, Merrill C.; Silva, Moisés (2011).Zondervan Illustrated Bible Dictionary. Zondervan.In the NT the adjective hagios G41, when used as a noun, usually refers to members of the Christian church. It is used once in the Gospels (Matt. 27:52) of the saints of the former age. The other references are in Acts, the Epistles, and Revelation. All believers are called "saints," even when their character is dubiously holy. The term is applied usually to the group of Christians constituting a CHURCH, rather than to one individual Christian (e.g., Acts 9:13; Rom. 8:27; Rev. 5:8).
^abElwell, W. A. (2001).Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Baker. pp. 235–236.Though rare in Acts, this is a common title in Paul and Revelation, appearing almost exclusively in the plural as a collective....In the NT also the fundamental idea of sainthood is separation to God or belonging to God. Thus the "holiness" of Christians is, in the first place, objective(1 Cor. 7:14). They are saints or holy by virtue of their being people of God (Eph. 2:19-22), chosen and loved by God (Col. 3:12), called (Rom. 1:7), inChrist (1 Cor. 1:30; Phil. 1:1), and the objects of the work of the Holy Spirit (2 Thess. 2:13). The ethical dimension, subjective holiness or saint-hood, is thus secondary, though no less important (Eph. 5:3; Heb. 12:14). The name thus bound believers to their holy God, to the great acts by which he separated them to himself, and to a life corresponding to his holiness.The name survived as a general title for Christians only through the second century.
^Trebilco, Paul (2012). Crossley, J. G. (ed.).Identity in the New Testament. Oxford University Press. p. 129.In 1 Cor 6:2 the saints are identified as "you" … Clearly, "the saints" is a designation for all God's people in Corinth.
^Trebilco, Paul (2012). "Self-designations and group identity in the New Testament". In Crossley, J. G. (ed.).Identity in the New Testament. Oxford University Press. pp. 129–130.Paul often usesoi hagioi as a way to designate his readers in the openings of his letters … the use of "all the saints" … emphasising the "corporate-ness" of the Christian communities … unity and oneness.
^Trebilco, Paul (2012). "Self-designations and group identity in the New Testament". In Crossley, J. G. (ed.).Identity in the New Testament. Oxford University Press. pp. 130–131.εἰς τοὺς ἁγίους … is an abbreviation for "εἰς τοὺς πτωχοὺς τῶν ἁγίων τῶν ἐν Ἱερουσαλήμ" (Rom 15:26).
^Barton, Stephen (2003).Holiness: Past and Present. T&T Clark. p. 201.Of great significance is the common designation "saints" (hagioi), a biblical term with eschatological connotations … "called to be saints."
^Sumner, D.; Tilling, C. (2025).T&T Clark handbook of Christology. T&T Clark. p. 325.When Paul addresses believers … as "saints" (1 Cor 1:2), the terminology reflects a new priestly identity … explaining roles such as judging angels (6:3) and participation in the altar of Christ.
^McKnight, S.; Cohick, L. H.; Gupta, N. K. (2023).Dictionary of Paul and His Letters. InterVarsity Press.The primary terminology associated with holiness in the Pauline corpus is from thehagios word group … Paul applieshagioi to believers … implying that holiness is an essential characteristic of the church community and all its members, not just a special class.
^Witherington III, Ben (2016).New Testament Theology and Ethics. IVP Academic. p. 289.Calling believers "saints" or "holy ones" (hagioi) was common in the early church, and originally it may have implied something about their moral rectitude. If so, Jude is contrasting his audience, with whom he has basic affinities, with the false teachers, who are morally corrupt. It is interesting that Jude calls Jesus "master" (despotes) in Jude 4 (cf. 2 Pet 2:1, which probably is based on this text). Jesus is both Lord and Master of the believoners, but these false teachers are disowning him by their words and deeds. This was no way to treat God's gracious offer of salvation through the gospel. It should not be seen as an opportunity for moral perversity.
^Witherington III, Ben (2007).Letters and Homilies for Jewish Christians: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on Hebrews, James and Jude. InterVarsity Press. p. 603.Calling believers saints or holy ones (hagioi) was common in the early church … Jude's vocabulary … has precedent or parallels in Paul's letters.
^Easley, Kendell H.; Morgan, Christopher W. (eds.).The Community of Jesus: A Theology of the Church. Broadman & Holman. pp. 89–90.Revelation uses "saints" more frequently than Acts … As in Acts, so in Revelation the "saints" are identical with "believers/Christians."
^Boring, M. E. (1999).1 Peter (Abingdon New Testament Commentaries). Abingdon. p. 206.Paul often refers to the Christian community as "holy ones" ("saints,"hagioi), but … a key ecclesiological term for Paul is absent from 1 Peter.
^Senior, Donald; Harrington, D. J. (2008).1 Peter. Liturgical Press. p. 190.Here "saints" (hagioi) is another term for Christians … They have been made holy by their contact with God the holy one.
^Unger, Merrill F. (2009).The New Unger’s Bible Dictionary. Moody Publishers.Positionally, every NT believer; experientially, a person eminent for piety and virtue: a consecrated person. Applied to the pious Israelites (Pss. 16:3; 34:9), Heb. qādôsh, elsewhere "godly ones," "holy ones." Also applied to members of the Body of Christ. All the saved of the NT era are saints (hagioi) by virtue of their position "in Christ" (1 Cor. 1:2; cf. Rom. 6:3–4; 8:1; Eph. 1:3; etc.). The NT refutes the idea of a special class of "saints."
^Erickson, Millard J. (1986).Concise Dictionary of Christian Theology. Baker. p. 147.Saint. In the New Testament, anyone who is a genuine believer in Christ …
^Thorsen, Don (2010).Thorsen Pocket Dictionary of Christian Theology. Barbour. p. 62.All who are saved, who have been made righteous because of Jesus Christ's atonement, are described in Scripture as saints (e.g., 1 Corinthians 1:2). They have been set apart for God as the church, and they are to live godly lives.
^Patte, Daniel, ed. (2010).The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity. CUP. p. 1123.Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, and Protestantism have various understandings … The Protestant Reformers … consider all Christians to be "saints" (1 Cor 1:2; 2 Cor 1:1; Col 1:2) …
^abSokol, David F. (2001).The Anglican Prayer Life: Ceum Na Corach', the True Way. iUniverse. p. 14.ISBN978-0-595-19171-0.In 1556 Article XXII in part read ... "The Romish doctrine concerning ... invocation of saints, is a fond thing vainly invented, and grounded upon no warranty of Scripture, but rather repugnant to the word of God." The term "doctrina Romanensium" or Romish doctrine was substituted for the "doctrina scholasticorum" of the doctrine of the school authors in 1563 to bring the condemnation up to date subsequent to the Council of Trent. As E. J. Bicknell writes, invocation may mean either of two things: the simple request to a saint for his prayers (intercession), 'ora pro nobis', or a request for some particular benefit. In medieval times the saints had come to be regarded as themselves the authors of blessings. Such a view was condemned but the former was affirmed.
^"Beloved of God, Called to Be Saints",New Testament Gospel Doctrine Teacher's Manual. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Salt Lake City, Utah. p. 150.
^Lindsay Jones, ed. (2005).Thomson Gale Encyclopedia of Religion (in Tajik). Vol. Sainthood (Second ed.). Macmillan Reference USA. p. 8033.
^Ray, Reginald A. "Some Aspects of the Tulku Trrdition in Tibet".The Tibet Journal, vol. 11, no. 4, 1986, pp. 35–69.JSTOR,http://www.jstor.org/stable/43300222. Accessed 14 August 2021.
^abcdBeaurepaire, Pierre-Yves (2017).Religious Interactions in Europe and the Mediterranean World: Coexistence and Dialogue from the 12th to the 20th Centuries. Taylor & Francis. pp. 310–314.ISBN9781351722179.
^Bhaskarananda, Swami (2002).The Essentials of Hinduism. Seattle: The Vedanta Society of Western Washington. p. 12.ISBN978-1-884852-04-6.
^Josef W. MeriThe Cult of Saints among Muslims and Jews in Medieval Syria OUP Oxford, 14.11.2002 ISBN 9780191554735 pp. 60-81
^Winkler, Hans Alexander.Ghost Riders of Upper Egypt.
^abSee John Renard,Friends of God: Islamic Images of Piety, Commitment, and Servanthood (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008); Idem.,Tales of God Friends: Islamic Hagiography in Translation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009)
^abRadtke, B., "Saint", in: Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān, General Editor: Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Georgetown University, Washington DC.
^Jonathan A. C. Brown, "Faithful Dissenters: Sunni Skepticism about the Miracles of Saints",Journal of Sufi Studies 1 (2012), p. 123
^Ibn Taymiyyah,Mukhtasar al-Fatawa al-Masriyya (al-Madani Publishing House, 1980), p. 603
^John Renard,Friends of God: Islamic Images of Piety, Commitment, and Servanthood (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008)
^Juan Eduardo Campo,Encyclopedia of Islam (New York: Infobase Publishing, 2009), p. 600
^See Jonathan A. C. Brown,Misquoting Muhammad (London: Oneworld Publications, 2015), p. 254
^Christopher Taylor,In the Vicinity of the Righteous (Leiden: Brill, 1999), pp. 5–6
^Beyond Exoticism and Syncretism: Situating Moroccan Pilgrimage in Jewish Studies by Oren Kosansky
^Khalsa, Sant Singh (2007).Sri Guru Granth Sahib: English Translation of Sri Guru Granth Sahib. Arizona: Hand Made Books (Mandeep Singh). pp. 12–263.
