Saeculum obscurum (Ecclesiastical Latin:[ˈsɛː.ku.lu.mobsˈkuː.rum], "the dark age/century"), also known as theRule of the Harlots or thePornocracy, was a period in thehistory of the papacy during the first two thirds of the10th century, following the chaos after the death ofPope Formosus in 896, and the seven legitimate popes and one illegitimateantipope elected between 896 and 904. It began with the installation ofPope Sergius III in 904 and lasted for 60 years until the death ofPope John XII in 964. During this period, thepopes were influenced strongly by a powerful and allegedly corruptaristocratic family, theTheophylacti, and their relatives and allies. The era is seen as one of the lowest points of the history of the papal office.
Thesaeculum obscurum was first named and identified as a period of papal immorality by theItalian cardinal and historianCaesar Baronius in hisAnnales Ecclesiastici in the 16th century.[1] Baronius's primary source for his history of this period was the contemporaneous writer BishopLiutprand of Cremona. Baronius himself was writing during theCounter-Reformation, a period of heightened sensitivity to clerical corruption. His characterisation of the early 10th-century papacy was perpetuated by Protestant authors. The descriptors "pornocracy" (German:Pornokratie, fromGreekpornokratiā, "rule of prostitutes"), hetaerocracy ("government of mistresses"), and the Rule of the Harlots (German:Hurenregiment), were coined by Protestant Germantheologians in the 19th century.[2]
HistorianWill Durant refers to the period from 867 to 1049 as the "nadir of the papacy".[3]
TheTheophylacti family were descended fromTheophylactus. They held positions of increased importance in the Roman nobility, such asiudex ("judge"),vestararius,gloriosissimus dux ("most-glorious duke"),consul,senator, andmagister militum.[4]Theophylact's wifeTheodora and daughterMarozia held a great influence over the papal selection and religious affairs in Rome through conspiracies, affairs, and marriages.[5]
Marozia became theconcubine of 45-year-oldPope Sergius III when she was 15 and later took other lovers and husbands.[6] She ensured that her son John (who was rumoured to have been fathered bySergius III) was seated asPope John XI according toAntapodosis sive Res per Europam gestae (958–962) byLiutprand of Cremona (c. 920–972). Liutprand affirms that Marozia arranged the murder of her former loverPope John X (who had originally been nominated for office by Theodora) through her then husbandGuy of Tuscany, possibly to secure the elevation of her current favourite asPope Leo VI.[7] There is no record substantiating that Pope John X had definitely died before Leo VI was elected since John X was already imprisoned by Marozia and was out of public view. Judicious historians, even those not noted for Catholic sympathies such asFerdinand Gregorovius have noted that John X was a victim of posthumous calumny.[8]
Theodora and Marozia held great sway over the popes during this time. In particular, as political rulers ofRome they had effective control over theelection of new popes. Much that is alleged about thesaeculum obscurum comes from the histories of Liutprand,Bishop of Cremona. Liutprand took part in the Assembly of Bishops which deposedPope John XII, and was a political opponent of the Roman aristocracy and its control over papal elections. Lindsay Brook writes:
We must be especially circumspect about the writing of Liutprand of Cremona, perhaps the most polemical of the tenth century chroniclers, who had his own agenda to promote the revived western Roman Empire. ...It would be misleading to portray all, or even most, of the popes of the era as worldly and corrupt. Surviving documents (and there are obvious lacunae) make it clear that many were competent administrators, and skilful diplomats in difficult and dangerous times. Some were even reformers, keen to root out discreditable practices such assimony. Others ordered the rebuilding and restoration of Rome's churches and palaces ... Rather, it is the manner of the election of many of them and their symbiotic relationship with the Roman aristocracy that has earned their regime the designation pornocracy.[9]
| Theophylact I, Count of Tusculum 864–924 | Theodora | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hugh of Italy 887–948 (also married Marozia) | Alberic I of Spoleto d. 925 | Marozia 890–937 | (alleged)Pope Sergius III Pope904–911 | Theodora | John (consul, later bishop) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Alda of Vienne | Alberic II of Spoleto 905–954 | David orDeodatus | Pope John XI 931–935 | Pope John XIII 965–972 | Crescentius the Elder | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Maria | Gregory I, Count of Tusculum | Pope John XII 955–964 | Pope Benedict VII 974–983 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Pope Benedict VIII 1012–1024 | Alberic III, Count of Tusculum d. 1044 | Pope John XIX 1024–1032 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Peter, Duke of the Romans | Gaius | Octavianus | Pope Benedict IX 1032–1048 | Gregory II, Count of Tusculum | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
After severalCrescentii family popes up to 1012, theTheophylacti still occasionally nominated sons as popes:
Pope Benedict IX went so far as to sell the Papacy to his religious godfather,Pope Gregory VI (1045–1046). Benedict IX then changed his mind, seized theLateran Palace, and became Pope for the third time in 1047–1048.
The Tusculan Papacy was finally ended by the election ofPope Nicholas II – five years after theGreat Schism of 1054 – who was assisted by Hildebrand of Sovana against Antipope Benedict X. Hildebrand was electedPope Gregory VII in 1073 and introduced theGregorian Reforms, increasing the power and independence of the papacy that would lead to help ignite theFirst Crusade in about 20 years.
