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Siege of Córdoba (1009–1013)

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(Redirected fromSacks of Córdoba (1009–1013))
Part of Fitna of al-Andalus
Siege of Córdoba
Part ofFitna of al-Andalus

The Iberian Peninsula in 1000 AD
DateNovember 1010[1]–May 1013[2]
Location
Result

Berber victory

Belligerents
BerbersCaliphate of Córdoba
Commanders and leaders
Sulayman ibn al-Hakam
Zawi ibn Ziri
Ali ibn Hammud al-Nasir
Al-Qasim al-Ma'mun[3]
many others		Muhammad II of Córdoba †
Hisham II †
Wadih al-Siqlabi †
Casualties and losses
UnknownHeavy, many killed or fled, city destroyed and sacked

The city ofCórdoba inal-Andalus, under the rule ofUmayyadCaliphHisham II al-Hakam, was besieged byBerbers from November 1010 until May 1013, with the city beyond theRoman walls completely destroyed.[4]

Background

[edit]

The death of caliphAl-Hakam II marked the demise of the last effective and powerfulUmayyad ruler ofAl-Andalus.[5] Before his death, Al-Hakam had been careful to secure the succession to his only son,Hisham II. Hisham assumed the caliphate in 976 at the age of ten, under the guardianship of his mother,Subh of Córdoba, assisted byAlmanzor.[5] This latter raised in ranks from al-Hakam days proving formidable civilian and military capabilities, he eventually reached the title ofHajib.[5]

Taking advantage of the weakness of the Umayyad rule, the Hajib marginalized influential figures like Subh, mother of Hisham, Almanzor assumed sole power as Hajib.[5] He placed Hisham under house arrest preventing him from leaving thepalace, which he had tightened its security, Hisham became a puppet ruler without power[5][6], his presence was limited to the coinage in his name, receiving homage in theFriday prayer, and to hold the title ofcaliph.[5]

Almanzor was keen to strengthen his rule by attracting new generation ofBerber mercenaries from theMaghreb to challenge theArab military aristocracy and theSaqaliba pride,[7][8] these Berbers were different from the old ones who came withMuslim conquest in the 8th century, as they were complete tribes directed by their own leaders,[7] they formed the bulk of thecaliphate of Córdoba army and its striking force,[8]Almanzor ensured military superiority in theIberian Peninsula over theChristian kingdoms in the North by wagingholy war on them two times per year,[5] thus strengthening his position as the supreme ruler of al-Andalus.

Despite military successes, the political situation inside the Muslim ruled "Al-Andalus" seemed to be in a state of turmoil, Berbers entered in conflict with Arabs and Andalusians (locals) for influence,[7][8] and absence of caliph Hisham escalated the stress, Upon Al-Mansur's death, his sonAbd al-Malik al-Muzaffar succeeded him as Hajib from 1002 until his death in 1008, his second sonAbd al-Rahman Sanchuelo assumed power after that.[9] He followed his father's approach and even forced Hisham al-Mu'ayyad to appoint him as his heir successor.[6][9] The situation deteriorated, as the inheritance rules prevents a non-Umayyad to hold the title of Caliph, the Arab-Andalusian aristocracy and many living Umayyad descendents feared the development of influence of theAmirid house and their Berber supporters.[9]

Sanchuelo set his army for a new expedition against thekingdom of León, being far enough from the unprotectedCórdoba, the Córdobans withMuhammad II of Córdoba rose in rebellion against the Amirid regime, and attacked Córdoba, thus overthrowning Hisham II, and making Muhammad caliph,[9] upon hearing the news,Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo marched on the city to restore order but many of his followers deserted him, due tofatigue from the expedition, as a result, he was defeated and executed by Muhammad's followers.[10]

Supported by the Córdoban population, Muhammad then turned on theBerbers and pillaged their homes. The Berbers were oppressed and an easy target for attack as they weren't allowed to be armed in the city.[11]

In order to support their cause after expulsion from Córdoba, the Berbers chose an Umayyad princeSulayman ibn al-Hakam as their candidate for the caliphate throne.[11] Sulayman renewed the rebellion with the backing of the Berbers andCastilians under the leadership of countSancho García of Castile, who had previously received offers of alliance from both Sulayman and Muhammad, finally deciding in favour of Sulayman's professional Berber regiments in exchange for some border fortresses and booty once taking control of Córdoba[12].

Sancho and Sulayman had defeatedWadih al-Siqlabi (the general ofMuhammad II of Córdoba) and hisCentral March army at theBattle of Alcalá de Henares.[12][13] The allied Berber-Castilian forces advanced on the city ofCórdoba and managed to defeat the Córdobans with both Wadih and Muhammad II at theBattle of Qantish.[11] This allowed Sulayman to enter Córdoba and proclaim himself caliph with the title "al-Musta'in" on 9 November 1009. Muhammad retreated toToledo where he was supported by two Frankish-Catalan counts. He later confronted Sulayman at theBattle of Aqbat al-Bakr where Sulayman was defeated and chose to retreat to southern Andalucia.[11] Muhammad reclaimed the city of Córdoba and pursued the fleeing Berbers. The two forces met at theBattle of Guadiaro where Sulayman was victorious and Muhammad was forced to retreat back to the city of Córdoba.[11][14]

Siege

[edit]

After retreating to Córdoba, Muhammad forced its citizens to fortify the city walls and towers fixing what had been previously destroyed. As an additional obstacle to attack, trenches were dug along the city walls. Muhammad's use of the citizens for such work led to a revolt. Ultimately, his Hajib Wadih killed him on 23 June 1010 and restored Hisham II to the throne.[11][14][15]

The Berbers however did not recognize Hisham II and refused to accept him as the caliph. Four months after theBattle of Guadiaro, the Berbers began a siege of Córdoba that would last two and a half years from November 1010 till May 1013.[1][2] During that time, the Berbers engaged in raids on the countryside and maintained a blockade of Córdoba from their base at theMadinat al-Zahra.[16] During the siege, North African Berber mercenaries stationed in Córdoba rebelled, sacked Medina Azahara, destroyed columns, arches and vaulted architecture, demolished elaborate water channels, bathhouses and aqueducts, plundered the ruins, and set them on fire.[17]

In November 1011, Wadih tried to make peace with the Berbers, but he was executed by his allies[3] while trying to flee.[4] Due to the lack of food, the citizens of Córdoba were forced to eat their animals and even resorted to eating the remains of humans. At night, they risked their lives by venturing out of the city in attempts to find and gather food.[3] The city was ravaged by plagues andGuadalquivir's river floods which caused human losses[18][19]. The Córdobans wrote two letters to Sulayman and sent them with a delegation, the first of which was to give Sulayman the caliphate and to govern it in the name of Hisham II, however, Sulayman was angered and didn't finish reading the letter because it started with "From Hisham al-Mu'ayyad bi Allah,Amir al-Mu'minin (Prince of Believers)", and Sulayman considered that title was only for him, as he didn't pledge the oath of allegiance to Hisham when he became Caliph in 976 (when he was 8 years old). The second letter was about the abdication of Hisham and swearing allegiance to Sulayman, both letters were ripped up with the delegation returning to Córdoba[18].

On 11 May 1013[11], the garrison of Córdoba tried a final sortie that failed and resulted in the city's surrender.[4][20] The Berbers pillaged the city, sacking and destroying houses and buildings, massacring many citizens including officials and scholars. Many inhabitants fled the city to escape, with the wealthiest ones being reduced to poverty. Hisham II was murdered, and Sulayman restored to the throne. Ultimately, the city was set on fire[4][10][11][21], with chaos lasting for two months[22]. Notable Jewish and Muslim scholars who escaped wereSamuel ibn Naghrillah andIbn Hazm[22][23].

Aftermath

[edit]

Supporters of Sulayman were granted cities and lands as rewards. TheZirids withZawi ibn Ziri took Elvira and reigned inGranada,Banu Ifran inRonda,Banu Khazrun inArcos de la Frontera, Banu Birzal inCarmona andJaén, Banu Dammar inMorón de la Frontera,Hammudids inMalaga,Algeciras,Ceuta andTangier[24][25][26] leading to the foundation ofTaifa age.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^abAmabe 2016, p. 105.
  2. ^abKennedy 2014, p. 127.
  3. ^abcAmabe, Fukuzo (2016-04-18).Urban Autonomy in Medieval Islam: Damascus, Aleppo, Cordoba, Toledo, Valencia and Tunis. BRILL.ISBN 978-90-04-31598-3.
  4. ^abcdCollins, Roger (2014-01-28).Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796-1031. John Wiley & Sons.ISBN 978-1-118-73001-0.
  5. ^abcdefgO'Callaghan, Joseph F. (1983-08-31).A History of Medieval Spain. Cornell University Press. pp. 126–128.ISBN 978-0-8014-9264-8.
  6. ^abGorsky, Jeffrey (2015).Exiles in Sepharad: The Jewish Millennium in Spain. U of Nebraska Press.ISBN 978-0-8276-1239-6.
  7. ^abcWai-Yip, Ho; Marín-Guzmán, Roberto; O’Shea-Meddour, Wendy; Choudhury, Enamul.American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 21:1. International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT).
  8. ^abcRodgers, Helen; Cavendish, Stephen (2021-12-01).City of Illusions: A History of Granada. Oxford University Press.ISBN 978-0-19-764406-5.
  9. ^abcdFlood, Timothy M. (2018-11-09).Rulers and Realms in Medieval Iberia, 711-1492. McFarland.ISBN 978-1-4766-3372-5.
  10. ^abPulcini, Theodore (1998).Exegesis as Polemical Discourse: Ibn Ḥazm on Jewish and Christian Scriptures. Scholars Press.ISBN 978-0-7885-0395-5.
  11. ^abcdefghKennedy, Hugh (2014-06-11).Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus. Routledge.ISBN 978-1-317-87041-8.
  12. ^abWalker, Rose (2025-10-01).Art in Spain and Portugal from the Romans to the Early Middle Ages: Routes and Myths. Taylor & Francis.ISBN 978-1-040-79370-1.
  13. ^Smith, Colin; Melville, Charles Peter; ʻUbaydlī, Aḥmad (1988).Christians and Moors in Spain. Oxford University Press.ISBN 978-0-85668-450-0.
  14. ^abConde, José Antonio (1854).History of the Dominion of the Arabs in Spain. Translated ... by Mrs. Jonathan Foster. Henry G. Bohn.
  15. ^Stetkevych, Suzanne Pinckney (2002-10-17).The Poetics of Islamic Legitimacy: Myth, Gender, and Ceremony in the Classical Arabic Ode. Indiana University Press.ISBN 978-0-253-21536-9.
  16. ^Fletcher, R. A. (Richard A. ) (1993).Moorish Spain. Internet Archive. Berkeley : University of California Press.ISBN 978-0-520-08496-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
  17. ^Nash, Elizabeth (2005).Seville, Córdoba, and Granada : a cultural history. Internet Archive. New York : Oxford University Press.ISBN 978-0-19-518203-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
  18. ^abScales (2024-04-08).The Fall of the Caliphate of Córdoba: Berbers and Andalusis in Conflict. BRILL.ISBN 978-90-04-61082-8.
  19. ^The Taifa Kingdoms: Reconsidering 11th-Century Iberia. BRILL. 2025-07-09.ISBN 978-90-04-73549-1.
  20. ^Rossel, Seymour (July 1983).Journey Through Jewish History: The Age of Faith and the Age of Freedom. Behrman House, Inc.ISBN 978-0-87441-366-3.
  21. ^Gayangos, Pascual De (2024-03-28).The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties In Spain: Vol. II. BoD – Books on Demand.ISBN 978-3-385-11557-6.
  22. ^abAdang, Camilla; Fierro, Maribel; Schmidtke, Sabine (2012-12-19).Ibn ?azm of Cordoba: The Life and Works of a Controversial Thinker. BRILL.ISBN 978-90-04-23424-6.
  23. ^Montefiore, Simon Sebag (2023-05-16).The World: A Family History of Humanity. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 301.ISBN 978-0-525-65954-9.
  24. ^Boudraa, Nabil; Krause, Joseph (2009-03-26).North African Mosaic: A Cultural Reappraisal of Ethnic and Religious Minorities. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.ISBN 978-1-4438-0768-5.
  25. ^Livermore, Harold (2024-11-01).A History of Spain. Taylor & Francis.ISBN 978-1-040-25910-8.
  26. ^Flood, Timothy M. (2018-11-09).Rulers and Realms in Medieval Iberia, 711-1492. McFarland.ISBN 978-1-4766-3372-5.

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