Rabbeinu Saʿadiah Gaon רבינו סעדיה גאון | |
|---|---|
 Calligraphy of Sa'adiah Gaon's name in Arabic | |
| Born | c. July 892 |
| Died | May 16, 942 |
| Burial place | Safed Old Jewish Cemetery |
| Era | Medieval philosophy |
| Children | Dosa ben Saadia |
Saʿadia ben Yosef Gaon[a] (892–942)[3][4] was a prominentrabbi,gaon,Jewish philosopher, andexegete who was active in theAbbasid Caliphate.
Saadia is the first important rabbinic figure to write extensively inJudeo-Arabic.[5] Known for his works onHebrew linguistics,Halakha, andJewish philosophy, he was a student of the philosophical school known as "Jewish Kalam".[6] In this capacity, his philosophical work entitledThe Book of Beliefs and Opinions represents the first systematic attempt to integrate Jewish theology with components ofancient Greek philosophy. Saadia was also very active in opposition toKaraite Judaism in defense ofRabbinic Judaism.
Saadia was born in Dilāẓ in theFaiyum inMiddle Egypt in 892. He immigrated to ancient Israel (in the Abbasid province of Bilad Al-Sham) in 915 at the age of 23, where he studied inTiberias under the scholar Abu Kathir Yaḥya al-Katib (known asEli ben Yehudah ha-Nazir in Hebrew), a Jewishmutakallim or theologian also mentioned byibn Ḥazm. In 926, Saadia settled permanently inLower Mesopotamia, known to Jews as "Babylonia", where he became a member ofSura Academy.
Saadia, inSefer ha-Galui, stresses his Jewish lineage, claiming to belong to the noble family ofShelah, son ofJudah,[7] and counting among his ancestorsHanina ben Dosa, the famous ascetic of the first century. Saadia expressed this claim by calling his sonDosa; this son later served as gaon of Sura Academy from 1012–1018. Regarding Joseph, Saadia's father, a statement of thePalestinian gaonAaron ben Meïr has been preserved saying that he was compelled to leave Egypt and died inJaffa, probably during Saadia's prolonged residence in theHoly Land.
The usualnisbaal-Fayyumi refers to Saadia's native place, theFayyum, which is located inMiddle Egypt; in Hebrew, it is often given asPitomi, derived from a contemporary identification of Fayum with the BiblicalPithom, an identification found in Saadia's works.
At the age of 20, Saadia began composing his first great work, the Hebrewdictionary called theAgron.[8] At 23, he composed a polemic against the followers ofAnan ben David, particularly Solomon ben Yeruham, thus beginning the activity which was to prove important in opposition toKaraite Judaism in defense ofRabbinic Judaism. In the same year, he left Egypt and moved toPalestine.
In 921, Saadia triumphed over Gaon Aaron ben Meïr over the latter's introduction of a newtriennial cycle of Torah reading that also changed the dates ofPassover andRosh Hashanah.[9] Later, one of Saadia's chief disputants was the Karaite by the name of Abu al-Surri ben Zuṭa, who is referred to byAbraham ibn Ezra, in his commentary onExodus 21:24 andLeviticus 23:15).[10]
In the year 928, at the age of thirty-six (variant: forty-six),David ben Zakkai, theExilarch or head of Babylonian Jewry, petitioned Saadia to assume the honorary title of gaon, where he was appointed that same year the Gaon of Sura Academy atMata Mehasya, a position which he held for 14 years until his death.[11]
After only two years of teaching, Saadia recused himself from teaching because of a dispute that had fallen out between him and the Exilarch. During Saadia's absence, his post was occupied byJoseph ben Jacob, the grandson ofNatronai ben Hilai. At length, Saadia was reconciled with the Exilarch and returned to serve in his former position, although Joseph ben Jacob also remained serving in his capacity as Gaon.
In 922, six years before Saadia was appointed Gaon of Babylonia, a controversy arose concerning theHebrew calendar, that threatened the entire Jewish community. SinceHillel II (around 359 CE), the calendar had been based on a series of rules (described more fully inMaimonides' Code[12]) rather than on observation of thelunar phases. One of these rules required the date ofRosh Hashanah to be postponed if the calculatedlunar conjunction occurred at noon or later. RabbiAaron ben Meïr, head of thePalestinian Gaonate (then located inRamla), claimed a tradition according to which the cutoff point was 642/1080 of an hour (approximately 35 minutes) after noon.[clarification needed] In that particular year, this change would result in a two-day schism with the major Jewish communities in Babylonia: according to Ben Meir the first day of Passover would be on a Sunday, while according to the generally accepted rule it would be on Tuesday.
Saadia was inAleppo, on his way from the East, when he learned of Ben Meïr's regulation of the Jewish calendar. Saadia addressed a warning to him, and in Mesopotamia, he placed his knowledge and pen at the disposal of the exilarchDavid ben Zakkai and the scholars of the academies, adding his letters to those sent by them to the communities of theJewish diaspora (922). In Babylonia, he wrote hisSefer haMo'adim, or "Book ofFestivals", in which he refuted the assertions of Ben Meïr regarding the calendar and helped to avert from the Jewish community the perils of schism.
His dispute with Ben Meir was an important factor in his call to Sura in 928. The Exilarch insisted on appointing him as Gaon "head of the academy" despite the weight of precedent (no foreigner had ever served as Gaon before) and against the advice of the aged Nissim Nahrwani, aResh Kallah at Sura, who feared a confrontation between the two strong-willed personalities, Exilarch David and Saadia. Nissim declared, however, that if David was determined to see Saadia in the position, then he would be ready to become the first of Saadia's followers.[13] Another factor against Saadia's appointment was his relatively undistinguished family, compared to the familial legacies of certain rabbis and their oral traditions.[14]
Under his leadership, the ancient academy of Sura founded byAbba Arikha entered upon a new period of brilliancy.[15] This renaissance was cut short by a clash between Saadia and David, much as Nissim had predicted.
In a probate case, Saadia refused to sign a verdict of the exilarch, which he thought unjust, although the Gaon ofPumbedita had subscribed to it. When the son of the exilarch threatened Saadia with violence to secure his compliance and was roughly handled by Saadia's servant, open war broke out between the exilarch and the gaon. Eachexcommunicated the other, declaring that he deposed his opponent from office. David ben Zakkai appointed Joseph ben Jacob Gaon of Sura and Saadia conferred the exilarchate on David's brother Hasan (Josiah; 930).
Hasan was forced to flee and died in exile inGreater Khorasan, and the strife that divided Babylonian Judaism continued. Saadia was attacked by the exilarch and his chief adherent, the young but learnedAaron ibn Sargado (later Gaon of Pumbedita, 943-960), in Hebrew pamphlets. Fragments of these pamphlets show a hatred on the part of the exilarch and his partisans that did not shrink from scandal. Saadia did not fail to reply.
Saadia's influence upon theJews of Yemen has been exceptionally great, as many of Saadia's extant works were preserved by the community and used extensively by them. The basis for theYemenitetiklāl is founded upon the prayer format edited originally by Saadia.[16] The Yemenite Jewish community also adopted thirteen penitential verse written by Saadia forYom Kippur, as well as the liturgical poems composed by him forHoshana Rabbah, the seventh day ofSukkot.[16]
Saadia's Judeo-Arabic translation of the Pentateuch, theTafsir, was copied by the Yemenite Jews in nearly all their handwritten codices. They originally studied Saadia's major work of philosophy,Beliefs and Opinions, in its original Judeo-Arabic,[16] although by the early 20th-century, only fragments survived.[17]
As much as Saadia's Judeo-Arabic translation of theTorah (Tafsīr) has brought relief and succour to Jews living in Arabic-speaking countries, his identification of places, fauna and flora, and the stones of thepriestly breastplate, has found him at variance with some scholars.Abraham ibn Ezra, in his commentary on the Torah, wrote scathing remarks on Saadia's commentary,[18] saying: "He doesn't have an oral tradition [...] perhaps he has a vision in a dream, while he has already erred with respect to certain places [...]; therefore, we will not rely on his dreams."
However, Saadia assures his readers elsewhere that when he rendered translations for the twenty-oddunclean fowl mentioned in theHebrew Bible,(Leviticus 11:13–19;Deuteronomy 14:12–18) his translation was based on anoral tradition received by him.[19] Saadia's method of conveying names for the fowls based on what he had received by way of an oral tradition prompted him to add in his defense: "Every detail about them, had one of them merely come unto us [for identification], we would not have been able to identify it for certain, much less recognize their related kinds."[20]
The question often asked by scholars now is whether Saadia applied this principle in his other translations.Re'em (Hebrew:ראם,romanized: rəʾēm), as inDeuteronomy 33:17, improperly translated as "unicorn" in some English translations, is a word that is now used inModern Hebrew to represent the "oryx". However, Saadia understood the same word to mean "rhinoceros" and writes there the Judeo-Arabic word for the creature (Judeo-Arabic:אלכרכדאן,romanized: al-karkadann). He interprets thezamer (Hebrew:זָֽמֶר,romanized: zāmer) inDeuteronomy 14:5 asgiraffe.
| Source Leviticus 11:29–30 | Hebrew Word | Saadia Gaon (Judeo-Arabic) | Rashi (Old French) | Septuagint (Greek) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Leviticus 11:29 | החֹלד (ha-ḥoled) | אלכׄלד Middle East blind mole-rat[21] | מושטילא mustele Weasel (Mustela spp.)[22][23] | γαλἡ (gale) Weasel[24][25] |
| Leviticus 11:29 | העכבּר (ha-ʿaḫbar) | אלפאר house mouse[21][26] | xxx | μυς (mys) Mouse[24] |
| Leviticus 11:29 | הצב (ha-ṣav) | אלצׄב Spiny-tailed lizard (Uromastyx aegyptia)[21] | פוייט froit Toad (Bufo spp.)[22][27] | κροκόδειλος (krokódeilos) Big lizard[24][28] |
| Leviticus 11:30 | האנקה (ha-anaqah) | אלורל monitor lizard[21] | הריון heriçon southern white-breasted hedgehog)[22] | μυγάλη (mygáli) Shrew (Crocidura spp.)[24] |
| Leviticus 11:30 | הכח (ha-koaḥ) | אלחרדׄון Agama lizard (Agama spp.)[21] | xxx | χαμαιλέων (chamailéon) Chameleon[24] |
| Leviticus 11:30 | הלטאה (ha-leṭa’ah) | אלעצׄאיה[29] Fringe-toed lizard (Acanthodactylus spp.) (Lacerta spp.)[21] | לישרדה laiserde Lizard (Lacerta spp.)[22] | καλαβώτης (kalavótis) Newt[24] |
| Leviticus 11:30 | החמט (ha-ḥomeṭ) | אלחרבא[b] Chameleon lizard (Chamaeleo spp.)[21] | לימצא limace Slug (Limax spp.)[22] | σαύρα (sávra) Lizard[24] |
| Leviticus 11:30 | התנשמת (ha-tinšameṯ) | אלסמברץ[30] Mediterranean house gecko[21] | טלפא talpe Mole (Talpa spp.)[22] | ασπάλαξ (aspálax) Mole[24] |
In Saadia's translation and commentary on theBook of Psalms (Kitāb al-Tasābiḥ), he has done what no other medieval writer has done before him, bringing down a biblicalexegesis and noting where the verse is to be read as a rhetorical question, and where the verse itself derides the question with good humor:
הַר אֱלהִים הַר בָּשָׁן. הַר גַּבְנֻנִּים הַר בָּשָׁן
לָמָּה תְּרַצְדוּן הָרִים גַּבְנֻנִּים
הָהָר חָמַד אֱלהִים לְשִׁבְתּוֹ. אַף יי' יִשְׁכּן לָנֶצַח
Is the hill of God the hill of Bashan? A hunchback mountain is the hill of Bashan! (Meaning, it is unfit for God's Divine Presence).
Why leap ye, ye hunchback mountains?
That mountain wherein God desires to dwell (i.e. Mount Moriah in Jerusalem), even the Lord shall dwell [therein] forever more.— Saadia Gaon's Commentary[31]
Saadia's approach torabbinic exegesis and midrashic literature was ambivalent. Although he adopted them in his liturgies, he did not recoil from denouncing them in his commentary on the Bible whenever he thought that they broke-away from the plain and ordinary meaning of the text.[32] Saadia adopts in principle the method of theSages that even the episodic-like parts of the Bible (e.g. story of Abraham and Sarah, the selling of Joseph, etc.) that do not contain commandments have a moral lesson to tell.[33]
In some instances, Saadia's biblical translations reflect his own rationale of difficult Hebrew words based on their lexical root, and he will, at times, reject the earlierTargum for his own understanding. For example, in Psalm 16:4, Saadia retracts from the Targum (translated): "They will multiply their goddesses[34] (Hebrew:עַצְּבוֹתָם); they have hastened after some other thing; I shall not pour out their libations of blood, neither shall I take-up their names upon my lips", writing instead: "They will multiply their revenues (Judeo-Arabic: אכסאבהם); they have hastened after some other thing", etc.[35] Even where a certain explanation is given in theTalmud, such as the Hebrew wordsבד בבד in Exo. 30:34 (explained inTaanit 7a as meaning "each spice pounded separately"), Saadia deviates from the rabbinic tradition in his Judeo-Arabic translation of the Pentateuch, in this case explaining its sense as "having them made of equal portions."[36]
In another apparent deviation from Talmudic tradition, where the Talmud (Hullin 63a) names a biblical species of fowl(Leviticus 11:18) known asraḥam (Hebrew:רחם) and says that it is the colorfulEuropean bee-eater called thesheraqraq, Saadia in his Judeo-Arabic translation of theHumash writes thatraḥam is theEgyptian vulture based on the phonetic similarity of its Arabic name with the Hebrew.[37] Thesheraqraq (Arabic:شقراق,romanized: šiqirrāq) is a bird that harbingers rain in theLevant (around October), for which reason the Talmud says: "Whenraḥam arrives, mercy (raḥamīm) comes into the world."[37]
He wrote both in Hebrew and in Arabic a work, now known only from a few fragments, entitled "Sefer ha-Galui" (Arabic title, "Kitab al-Ṭarid"), in which he emphasized with great but justifiable pride the services which he had rendered, especially in his opposition to heresy.
The fourteen years which Saadia spent inBabylonia did not interrupt his literary activity. His principal philosophical work was completed in 933; and four years later, through Ibn Sargado's father-in-law, Bishr ben Aaron, the two enemies were reconciled. Saadia was reinstated in his office; but he held it for only five more years. David b. Zakkai died before him (c. 940), being followed a few months later by the exilarch's son Judah, while David's young grandson was nobly protected by Saadia as by a father. According to a statement made byAbraham ibn Daud and doubtless derived from Saadia's son Dosa, Saadia himself died inBabylonia atSura in 942, at the age of sixty, of "black gall" (melancholia), repeated illnesses having undermined his health.
An anecdote is reported inSefer Hasidim about Saadia ben Yosef "the sage", in which he ends a dispute between a servant who claims to be the heir of his deceased master and the man's true son and heir by having them both draw blood into separate vessels. He then took a bone from the deceased man and placed it into each of the cups. The bone in the cup of the true heir absorbed the blood, while the servant's blood was not absorbed in the bone. Using this as genetic proof of the son's true inheritance, Saadia had the servant return the man's property to his son.[38]
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Saadia Gaon was a pioneer in the fields in which he toiled. The foremost object of his work was the Bible; his importance is due primarily to his establishment of a new school of Biblical exegesis characterized by a rational investigation of the contents of the Bible and a scientific knowledge of the language of the holy text.
Saadia's Arabic translation of theTorah is of importance for the history of civilization; itself a product of theArabization of a large portion of Judaism, it served for centuries as a potent factor in the impregnation of the Jewish spirit with Arabic culture, so that, in this respect, it may take its place beside theGreek translation of antiquity and the German translation of the Pentateuch byMoses Mendelssohn. As a means of popular religious enlightenment, Saadia's translation presented the Scriptures even to the unlearned in a rational form which aimed at the greatest possible degree of clarity and consistency.
His system of hermeneutics was not limited to the exegesis of individual passages, but also treated each book of the Bible as a whole, showing the connection of its various portions with one another.
The commentary contained, as is stated in the author's own introduction to his translation of the Pentateuch, not only an exact interpretation of the text, but also a refutation of the cavils which the heretics raised against it. Further, it set forth the bases of the commandments of reason and the characterization of the commandments of revelation; in the case of the former the author appealed to philosophical speculation; of the latter, naturally, to tradition.
The position assigned to Saadia in the oldest list of Hebrew grammarians, which is contained in the introduction toAbraham ibn Ezra's "Moznayim", has not been challenged even by the latest historical investigations. Here, too, he was the first; his grammatical work, now lost, gave an inspiration to further studies, which attained their most brilliant and lasting results inSpain, and he created in part the categories and rules along whose lines was developed the grammatical study of the Hebrew language. His dictionary, primitive and merely practical as it was, became the foundation of Hebrew lexicography; and the name "Agron" (literally, "collection"), which he chose and doubtless created, was long used as a designation for Hebrew lexicons, especially by the Karaites. The very categories of rhetoric, as they were found among the Arabs, were first applied by Saadia to the style of the Bible. He was likewise one of the founders of comparative philology, not only through his brief "Book of Seventy Words", already mentioned, but especially through his explanation of the Hebrew vocabulary by the Arabic, particularly in the case of the favorite translation of Biblical words by Arabic terms having the same sound.
Saadia's works were the inspiration and basis for later Jewish writers, such asBerachyah in his encyclopedic philosophical workSefer Hahibbur (The Book of Compilation).
Saadia likewise identifies the definitive trait of "a cock girded about the loins" within Proverbs 30:31 (Douay–Rheims Bible) as "the honesty of their behavior and their success",[39] rather than theaesthetic interpretations of so many others, thus identifying a spiritual purpose of a religious vessel within that religious and spiritual instilling schema of purpose and use.
In his commentary on theSefer Yetzirah, Saadia sought to render lucid and intelligible the content of this esoteric work by the light of philosophy and scientific knowledge, especially by a system of Hebrew phonology which he himself had founded. He did not permit himself in this commentary to be influenced by the theological speculations of theKalam, which are so important in his main works. In introducing Sefer Yetzirah's theory of creation he makes a distinction between the Biblical account ofcreation ex nihilo, in which no process of creation is described, and the process described in Sefer Yetzirah (matter formed by speech). The cosmogony of Sefer Yetzirah is even omitted from the discussion of creation in his magnum opus "Kitab al-Amanat wal-I'tiḳadat". Concerning the supposed attribution of the book to the patriarchAbraham, he allows that the ideas it contains might be ancient. Nonetheless, he clearly considered the work worthy of deep study and echoes of Sefer Yetzirah's cosmogony do appear in "Kitab al-Amanat wal-I'tiḳadat" when Saadia discusses his theory of prophecy.
Saadia translated the Humash and some of the other books of the Hebrew Bible into Judeo-Arabic, adding a Judeo-Arabic commentary.
Saadia translatedMegillat Antiochus into Judeo-Arabic and wrote an introduction.[47]
saadia arabic jewish.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Singer, Isidore; et al., eds. (1901–1906).The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
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| Preceded by | Gaon of theSura Academy 928-942 | Succeeded by |
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